Multi-scale modeling of CO2 dispersion leaked from seafloor off the Japanese coast

A numerical simulation was conducted to predict the change of pCO₂ in the ocean caused by CO₂ leaked from an underground aquifer, in which CO₂ is purposefully stored. The target space of the present model was the ocean above the seafloor. The behavior of CO₂ bubbles, their dissolution, and the advection-diffusion of dissolved CO₂ were numerically simulated. Here, two cases for the leakage rate were studied: an extreme case, 94,600 t/y, which assumed that a large fault accidentally connects the CO₂ reservoir and the seafloor; and a reasonable case, 3800 t/y, based on the seepage rate of an existing EOR site. In the extreme case, the calculated increase in ΔpCO₂ experienced by floating organisms was less than 300 ppm, while that for immobile organisms directly over the fault surface periodically exceeded 1000 ppm, if momentarily. In the reasonable case, the calculated ΔpCO₂ and pH were within the range of natural fluctuation.     

Quantifying CO2 fluxes from soil surfaces to the atmosphere

Measurements of CO₂ fluxes from ground surface of the atmosphere (soil respiration) are needed to quantify biotic and abiotic reaction rates in unsaturated zones and to gain insight into the importance of these processes on global warming. The use of three techniques (dynamic closed chambers, static chambers, and gradient calculations) to determine soil respiration was assessed by measuring fluxes of microbially produced CO₂ from an unsaturated mesocosm (2.4 m dia.×3.2 m thick) and two unsaturated minicosms (0.58 m dia.×1.2 m thick), one maintained at 18–23 °C (HT) and the other at 5 °C (LT). By injecting known and constant CO₂ fluxes into the bottom of the HT minicosm and measuring the resulting fluxes, it was shown that the dynamic closed chamber (DCCS) technique yielded accurate measurements of fluxes over the range observed from natural unsaturated media. Over this same range, results showed that the concentration gradient method yielded reasonable estimates of fluxes but its accuracy was limited by uncertainties in both the concentration gradient and the gaseous diffusion coefficient in the soil atmosphere. The static chamber method underestimated the actual flux at higher CO₂ fluxes and when adsorption times of >24 h were used.     

Air-sea CO2 exchange of beach and near-coastal waters of the Chukchi Sea near Barrow, Alaska

Partial pressure of CO₂ in equilibrium with sample water (pCO₂) for the coastal water in the Chukchi Sea was continuously observed in summer, 2008. Average daily CO₂ flux calculated from the pCO₂ and gas transfer coefficients ranged from −0.144 to −0.0701 g C m⁻² day⁻¹ depending on which gas transfer coefficient was used. The pCO₂ before the landfast ice sheets melted appeared to be highly biologically controlled based on the following information: (1) the diurnal pattern of pCO₂ was strongly correlated with Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD); (2) high chlorophyll density was observed during periods of peak uptake; and (3) the day-to-day variation in the pCO₂ strongly correlated with the presence or absence of near-shore ice sheets. The lowest pCO₂ of 35 ppm together with the highest PPFD of 1362 μmol E m⁻² s⁻¹ were observed in the afternoon on June 28 in the presence of sea ice. The very low pCO₂ observed in late June was likely caused by high photosynthetic rates related to high phytoplankton densities typically observed from spring to early summer near the ice edge, and by water low in salinity and CO₂ released by melting sea ice early in the season.     

Capillary pressure for the sand–CO2–water system under various pressure conditions. Application to CO2 sequestration

Accurate modeling of storage of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in heterogeneous aquifers requires experiments of the capillary pressure as function of temperature and pressure. We present a method with which static drainage and imbibition capillary pressures can be measured continuously as a function of saturation at various temperature (T) and pressure (P) conditions. The measurements are carried out at (T, P) conditions of practical interest. Static conditions can be assumed as small injection rates are applied. The capillary pressure curves are obtained for the unconsolidated sand–distilled water–CO₂ system. The experimental results show a decrease of drainage and imbibition capillary pressure for increasing CO₂ pressures and pronounced dissolution rate effects for gaseous CO₂. Significant capillary pressure fluctuations and negative values during imbibition are observed at near critical conditions. The measurement procedure is validated by a numerical model that simulates the experiments.     

Regional scale impacts of distinct CO(2) additions in the North Sea

A marine system model applied to the North West European shelf seas is used to simulate the consequences of distinct CO(2) additions such as those that could arise from a failure of geological sequestration schemes. The choice of leak scenario is guided by only a small number of available observations and requires several assumptions; hence the simulations reported on are engineered to be worse case scenarios. The simulations indicate that only the most extreme scenarios are capable of producing perturbations that are likely to have environmental consequences beyond the locality of a leak event. Tidally driven mixing rather than air-sea exchange is identified as the primary mechanism for dispersal of added CO(2). We show that, given the available evidence, the environmental impact of a sequestration leak is likely to be insignificant when compared to the expected impact from continued non-mitigated atmospheric CO(2) emissions and the subsequent acidification of the marine system. We also conclude that more research, including both leak simulations and assessment of ecological impacts is necessary to fully understand the impact of CO(2) additions to the marine system.     

基于自适应杂交遗传算法的CO_2地质封存的储层参数反演研究

二氧化碳地质封存是减少温室气体排放和减缓温室效应的重要手段.二氧化碳封存的一个重要组成部分是地震监测,即用地震的方法监测封存后的二氧化碳的分布变化.为了实现这个目标,需要建立储层参数与地震性质之间的关系(岩石物理模型)和从地震监测数据中反演获得储层流体的饱和度等参数.首先,本文以Biot理论为基础,结合多相流模型研究了多个物理参数(孔隙度、二氧化碳饱和度、温度和压力等)对同时含有二氧化碳和水的孔隙介质的波速和衰减等属性的影响.结果表明:孔隙度和二氧化碳饱和度对岩石的频散和衰减属性影响强烈,而温度和压力通过孔隙流体性质对岩石的波速产生影响.然后,本文基于含多相流的Biot理论,应用抗干扰能力强、且具有更好的局部搜索能力和抗早熟能力的自适应杂交遗传算法对实际数据进行了反演研究.对岩心实验数据的反演研究表明了算法的有效性,而且表明含多相流的Biot理论能够很好地解释水和二氧化碳饱和岩石的波速特征.最后,我们将自适应杂交遗传算法应用于实际封存项目的地震监测数据,获得了封存后不同时期的二氧化碳饱和度,达到了用地震方法监测二氧化碳分布的目的.     

Morphological changes in branchial mitochondria-rich cells of the teleost Paralichthys olivaceus as a potential indicator of CO2 impacts

We studied the morphological and biochemical changes of mitochondria-rich cells (MRCs) of a demersal teleost, Paralichthys olivaceus, during exposure to 0.98, 2.97 and 4.95 kPa pCO₂. The apical opening area of MRCs increased 2.2 and 4.1 times by 24 h exposure to 2.97 and 4.95 kPa pCO₂, respectively, while the cross-sectional area or density of MRCs did not change. Gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity more than doubled at 72 h and then returned to the pre-exposure level at 168 h in 0.98 kPa pCO₂, while it increased 1.7 times at 24 h at 4.95 kPa. These results indicate that the apical opening area of MRCs and the gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity may be used as an indicator of acute (up to 72 h), but not chronic, impacts of high (>1 kPa) seawater CO₂ conditions in P. olivacues. Limitations of those parameters as indices of CO₂ impacts are discussed.     

Modeling vertical stratification of CO2 injected into a deep layered aquifer

The vertical stratification of carbon dioxide (CO₂) injected into a deep layered aquifer made up of high-permeability and low-permeability layers, such as Utsira aquifer at Sleipner site in Norway, is investigated with a Buckley–Leverett equation including gravity effects. In a first step, we study both by theory and simulation the application of this equation to the vertical migration of a light phase (CO₂), in a denser phase (water), in 1D vertical columns filled with different types of porous media: homogeneous, piecewise homogeneous, layered periodic and finally heterogeneous. For each case, we solve the associated Riemann problems and propose semi-analytical solutions describing the spatial and temporal evolution of the light phase saturation. These solutions agree well with simulation results. We show that the flux continuity condition at interfaces between high-permeability and low-permeability layers leads to CO₂ saturation discontinuities at these interfaces and, in particular, to a saturation increase beneath low-permeability layers. In a second step, we analyze the vertical migration of a CO₂ plume injected into a 2D layered aquifer. We show that the CO₂ vertical stratification under each low-permeability layer is induced, as in 1D columns, by the flux continuity condition at interfaces. As the injection takes place at the bottom of the aquifer the velocity and the flux function decrease with elevation and this phenomenon is proposed to explain the stratification under each mudstone layer as observed at Sleipner site.     

High-resolution simulation and characterization of density-driven flow in CO2 storage in saline aquifers

Simulations are routinely used to study the process of carbon dioxide (CO₂) sequestration in saline aquifers. In this paper, we describe the modeling and simulation of the dissolution–diffusion–convection process based on a total velocity splitting formulation for a variable-density incompressible single-phase model. A second-order accurate sequential algorithm, implemented within a block-structured adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) framework, is used to perform high-resolution studies of the process. We study both the short-term and long-term behaviors of the process. It is found that the onset time of convection follows closely the prediction of linear stability analysis. In addition, the CO₂ flux at the top boundary, which gives the rate at which CO₂ gas dissolves into a negatively buoyant aqueous phase, will reach a stabilized state at the space and time scales we are interested in. This flux is found to be proportional to permeability, and independent of porosity and effective diffusivity, indicative of a convection-dominated flow. A 3D simulation further shows that the added degrees of freedom shorten the onset time and increase the magnitude of the stabilized CO₂ flux by about 25%. Finally, our results are found to be comparable to results obtained from TOUGH2-MP.     

Air-sea CO2 fluxes in the southern Yellow Sea: An examination of the continental shelf pump hypothesis

The southern Yellow Sea (SYS), located to the north of the East China Sea (ECS), was considered part of the ECS when Tsunogai et al. (1999) proposed the “continental shelf pump” (CSP) hypothesis. However, the original CSP carbon dioxide (CO₂) uptake flux (2.9 mol C m⁻² yr⁻¹) appears to have been overestimated, primarily due to the differences between the SYS and the ECS in terms of their CO₂ system. In this paper, we estimated air-sea CO₂ fluxes in the SYS using the surface water partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂) measured in winter, spring, and summer, as well as that estimated in fall via the relationship of pCO₂ with salinity, temperature, and chlorophyll a. The results indicate that overall, the entire investigated area was a net source of atmospheric CO₂ during summer, winter, and fall, whereas it was a net sink during spring. Spatially, the nearshore area was almost a permanent CO₂ source, while the central SYS shifted from being a CO₂ sink in spring to a source in the other seasons of the year. Overall, the SYS is a net source of atmospheric CO₂ on an annual scale, releasing ∼7.38 Tg C (1 Tg=10¹² g) to the atmosphere annually. Thus, the updated CO₂ uptake flux in the combined SYS and ECS is reduced to ∼0.86 mol C m⁻² yr⁻¹. If this value is extrapolated globally following Tsunogai et al. (1999), the global continental shelf would be a sink of ∼0.29 Pg C yr⁻¹, instead of 1 Pg C yr⁻¹ (1 Pg=10¹⁵ g).The SYS as a net annual source of atmospheric CO₂ is in sharp contrast to most mid- and high-latitude continental shelves, which are CO₂ sinks. We argue that unlike the ECS and the North Sea where carbon on the shelf could be exported to the open ocean, the SYS lacks the physical conditions required by the CSP to transport carbon off the shelf effectively. The global validity of the CSP theory is thus questionable.     

北京城区二氧化碳浓度和通量的梯度变化特征——I浓度与虚温

根据北京塔7层涡动系统2012年5月至2013年12月的湍流观测数据,分析了北京城区二氧化碳浓度在不同高度层次的日变化和月变化特征,并初步给出不同季节和日变化时间段内二氧化碳的浓度垂直廓线.结果表明:二氧化碳浓度整体随高度而下降;各观测层均有浓度的明显日变化,夏季最为明显,冬季相对平缓;近地层浓度直接受城市供暖、地表植被、交通运输等碳源影响,更高观测层浓度则受对流输送和天气过程影响较大;垂直方向上,冬季浓度变化范围最大,夏季层间浓度变化最明显;在一天中的任何时刻,近地面层二氧化碳浓度的日变化最低值一般出现在夏季,50m以上则出现在春季,浓度最高值总是出现在冬季;根据对二氧化碳浓度四季垂直廓线变化的分析可以看出,边界层二氧化碳浓度强烈受到碳源、下垫面植被、大气稳定度、环境温度和天气过程等因素的影响.     

Effects of elevated CO2 on the reproduction of two calanoid copepods

Some planktonic groups suffer negative effects from ocean acidification (OA), although copepods might be less sensitive. We investigated the effect of predicted CO₂ levels (range 480–750 ppm), on egg production and hatching success of two copepod species, Centropages typicus and Temora longicornis. In these short-term incubations there was no significant effect of high CO₂ on these parameters. Additionally a very high CO₂ treatment, (CO₂ = 9830 ppm), representative of carbon capture and storage scenarios, resulted in a reduction of egg production rate and hatching success of C. typicus, but not T. longicornis. In conclusion, reproduction of C. typicus was more sensitive to acute elevated seawater CO₂ than that of T. longicornis, but neither species was affected by exposure to CO₂ levels predicted for the year 2100. The duration and seasonal timing of exposures to high pCO₂, however, might have a significant effect on the reproduction success of calanoid copepods.     

Fluid circulation at Stromboli volcano (Aeolian Islands, Italy) from self-potential and CO2 surveys

This work addresses the study of fluid circulation of the Stromboli island using a dense coverage of self-potential (SP) and soil CO₂ data. A marked difference exists between the northern flank and the other flanks of the island. The northern flank exhibits (1) a typical negative SP/altitude gradient not observed on the other flanks, and (2) higher levels of CO₂. The general SP pattern suggests that the northern flank is composed of porous layers through which vadose water flows down to a basal water table, in contrast to the other flanks where impermeable layers impede the vertical flow of vadose water. In the Sciara del Fuoco and Rina Grande–Le Schicciole landslide complexes, breccias of shallow gliding planes may constitute such impermeable layers whereas elsewhere, poorly permeable, fine-grained pyroclastites or altered lava flows may be present. This general model of the flanks also explains the main CO₂ patterns: concentration of CO₂ at the surface is high on the porous north flank and lower on the other flanks where impermeable layers can block the upward CO₂ flux. The active upper part of the island is underlain by a well-defined hydrothermal system bounded by short-wavelength negative SP anomalies and high peaks of CO₂. These boundaries coincide with faults limiting ancient collapses of calderas, craters and flank landslides. The hydrothermal system is not homogeneous but composed of three main subsystems and of a fourth minor one and is not centered on the active craters. The latter are located near its border. This divergence between the location of the active craters and the extent of the hydrothermal system suggests that the internal heat sources may not be limited to sources below the active craters. If the heat source strictly corresponds to intrusions at depth around the active conduits, the geometry of the hydrothermal subsystems must be strongly controlled by heterogeneities within the edifice such as craters, caldera walls or gliding planes of flank collapse, as suggested by the correspondence between SP–CO₂ anomalies and structural limits. The inner zone of the hydrothermal subsystems is characterized by positive SP anomalies, indicating upward movements of fluids, and by very low values of CO₂ emanation. This pattern suggests that the hydrothermal zone becomes self-sealed at depth, thus creating a barrier to the CO₂ flux. In this hypothesis, the observed hydrothermal system is a shallow one and it involves mostly convection of infiltrated meteoric water above the sealed zone. Finally, on the base of CO₂ degassing measurements, we present evidence for the presence of two regional faults, oriented N41° and N64°, and decoupled from the volcanic structures.     

Seasonal variations in pCO2 and its controlling factors in surface seawater of the northern East China Sea

Surface partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂), temperature, salinity, nutrients, and chlorophyll a were measured in the East China Sea (ECS; 31°30′–34°00′N to 124°00′–127°30′E) in August 2003 (summer), May 2004 (spring), October 2004 (early fall), and November 2005 (fall). The warm and saline Tsushima Warm Current was observed in the eastern part of the survey area during four cruises, and relatively low salinity waters due to outflow from the Changjiang (Yangtze River) were observed over the western part of the survey area. Surface pCO₂ ranged from 236 to 445 μatm in spring and summer, and from 326 to 517 μatm in fall. Large pCO₂ (values >400 μatm) occurred in the western part of the study area in spring and fall, and in the eastern part in summer. A positive linear correlation existed between surface pCO₂ and temperature in the eastern part of the study area, where the Tsushima Warm Current dominates; this correlation suggests that temperature is the major factor controlling surface pCO₂ distribution in that area. In the western part of the study area, however, the main controlling factor is different and seasonally complex. There is large transport in this region of Changjiang Diluted Water in summer, causing low salinity and low pCO₂ values. The relationship between surface pCO₂ and water stability suggests that the amount of mixing and/or upwelling of CO₂-rich water might be the important process controlling surface pCO₂ levels during spring and fall in this shallow region. Sea–air CO₂ flux, based on the application of a Wanninkhof [1992. Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 97, 7373–7382] formula for gas transfer velocity and a set of monthly averaged satellite wind data, were −5.04±1.59, −2.52±1.81, 1.71±2.87, and 0.39±0.18 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹ in spring, summer, early fall, and fall, respectively, in the northern ECS. The ocean in this study area is therefore a carbon sink in spring and summer, but a weak source or in equilibrium with the atmosphere in fall. If the winter flux value is assumed to have been the mean of autumnal and vernal values, then the northern ECS absorbs about 0.013 Pg C annually. That result suggests that the northern ECS is a net sink for atmospheric CO₂, a result consistent with previous studies.     

Geochemical features of the geothermal CO2-watercarbonate rock system and analysis on its CO2 sources

Taking Huanglong Ravine and Kangding, Sichuan, and Xiage, Zhongdian, Yunnan, as examples, the authors summarize the hydrogeochemical and carbon stable isotopic features of the geothermal CO₂-water-carbonate rock system and analyze the CO₂ sources of the system. It was found that the hydrogeochemical and carbon stable isotopic features of such a system are different from those of shallow CO₂-water-carbonate rock system, which is strongly influenced by biosphere. The former has higher CO₂ partial pressure, and is rich in heavy carbon stable isotope. In addition, such a geothermal system is also different from that developed in igneous rock. The water in the latter system lacks Ca²⁺, and thus, there are few tufa deposits on ground surface, but it is rich in light carbon stable isotope. Further analysis shows that CO₂ of the geothermal CO₂-water-carbonate rock system is a mixture of metamorphic CO₂ and magmatic CO₂.     

fCO2 variability in the Bay of Biscay during ECO cruises

The Bay of Biscay is part of the North Atlantic Ocean, the most important sink of CO₂, and a subduction zone of mode waters that favours the entry of carbon to the ocean interior. To investigate the seasonal and interannual variability of CO₂ uptake, continuous underway measurements of the partial pressure of CO₂ at sea surface were performed along a commercial route between Vigo (Spain) and St. Nazaire (France). An unattended measuring system of CO₂ fugacity (fCO₂), with meteorological station, and temperature, salinity, oxygen and fluorescence sensors, was installed on board of ships of opportunity (RO-RO L’Audace and RO-RO Surprise).     

微囊藻CO2-浓缩机制基因型的动态变化及其对CO2的竞争效应

由于具有高效的CO₂-浓缩机制,蓝藻在低CO₂浓度条件下具有竞争优势。然而,随着大气中CO₂浓度急剧增加,蓝藻CO₂-浓缩机制如何响应的研究较少。因此,本文以常见水华蓝藻——微囊藻为研究对象,通过对滇池微囊藻水华动态及不同CO₂-浓缩机制基因型进行监测,探讨蓝藻CO₂-浓缩机制基因的微进化特征及其动态变化。同时,设置高(0.08%)、中(0.04%)、低(0.02%)CO₂浓度(V/V)进一步揭示微囊藻不同CO₂-浓缩机制基因微进化对CO₂的竞争效应。结果表明:滇池无机碳浓度在4个采样点存在空间差异性,均呈现先降低后升高的趋势,并以HCO₃^-为主要无机碳存在形式。调查期间,东大河、观音山、洛龙河和生态所4个采样点的微囊藻均以sbtA基因型占绝对优势,相对丰度远高于bicA基因型。在不同水华时期,bicA基因型和sbtA基因型呈现相反的变化趋势,即从...     

三峡水库CO2、CH4通量监测分析研究

自成库以来,三峡水库CO₂、CH₄等温室气体通量较蓄水前发生明显改变。如何科学认识和客观评估三峡水库修建及运行对其CO₂、CH₄等温室气体通量的影响备受关注。本文简要回顾了自2009年以来在三峡水库开展CO₂、CH₄等温室气体通量监测与分析工作,综述认为,现阶段三峡水库温室气体排放以水-气界面扩散释放为主要途径。陆源输入的有机碳是主导三峡水库CO₂、CH₄产生的主要碳源,但在局部区段或时段自源性有机碳的贡献亦十分显著。同蓄水前相比,三峡水库碳排放量呈现为净增加,淹没效应约占水库C净增量的20%,库区内点面源污染负荷并未对CO₂排放的净增量产生显著贡献,阻隔效应和生态系统重建效应对三峡水库碳排放的净增量产生显著贡献。近10年来,监测方法比对、监测点位优化等工作在一定程度上完善了三峡水库温室气体通量监测体系。新方法、新技术的引入也为三峡水库温室气体通量监测分析提供了有利支撑和保障,但复杂水文环境...     

Origin and source of CO2 in natural gas from the eastern Sichuan Basin

The CO2 contents of natural gas from the eastern Sichuan Basin were mainly less than 2%,and they were generally large when the H2S contents were over 5%.The natural gas in the eastern Sichuan Basin showed high δ13C1 values uncorrelated with H2S contents,and the oil-associated gas generally displayed carbon isotopic reversal between methane and ethane,whereas the coal-derived gas samples displayed positive series.The δ13C values of CO2 in the natural gas could be divided into two types,one with low values(-24‰--12‰)and the other with high values(-8‰-4‰).The natural gas had low R/Ra values and broad CO2/3He values distinct from the mantle-derived gas,and the CO2 was typical of crustal origin.Natural gas with high δ13CCO2 values is distributed in the north region of the eastern Sichuan Basin,and CO2 in H2S-poor and H2S-free reservoirs was mainly derived from the thermal decomposition of carbonate rocks under Permian magmatism and high heat flow,whereas CO2 in the gas reservoirs with high TSR extent was derived mainly from the dedolomitization of carbonate reservoirs under acidic formation water,and the CO2 of TSR origin generally entered into the secondary calcite.The CO2 in natural gas in the south-central region of the eastern Sichuan Basin,which had been rarely affected by the Emeishan mantle plume,displayed low δ13C values and was of organic origin.Though the natural gas in Wolonghe gas field had experienced TSR,the low reaction extent and weak acidity of formation water could hardly have resulted in the dedolomitization,and therefore CO2 in the natural gas was mainly of TSR origin with low δ13C values.