Military geology and the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1863

Gettysburg – the most costly of all battles of the American Civil War, and one of the most significant battles ever fought. Contested in rural Pennsylvania, the Battle of Gettysburg took place after a chance encounter by the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia (General Robert E. Lee) with the Union Army of the Potomac (Major-General George Meade). It was to prove the turning point in the war, the so-called 'high tide' of the Confederacy, as after Gettysburg the fortunes of war turned in favour of the Union. Fought over three days in early July 1863, the battle continues to be analyzed and re-analyzed from all perspectives. Significantly, it was the first battle to be re-interpreted from the perspective of its geology, by Andrew Brown of the Pennsylvania State Survey in the early 1960s. It continues to fascinate geologists interested in the overall impact of geology and terrain in determining the outcome of battle. This article examines why Gettysburg has been so influential in shaping our understanding of geology in warfare.     

变质地质学的某些进展

在变质地质学１６０余年的研究历史中经历了从静态到动态两个思维发展过程。本世纪六十年代以前，变质作用的研究以静态思维方法为主，以深度带的概念为代表。六十年代初由于Ｍｉｙａｓｈｉｒｏ提出变质相系概念使变质地质学开始转向动力学方面，但由于变质相系未阐明变质过程中地热体制的变化，因此仍属于静态思维方面。七十年代以来，由于以下几个方面的进展，变质地质学开始以动力学方法为特征：（１）开展了世界范围内的小比例尺变质编图工作，以相组和相系为基础研究变质作用类型及其时空演化规律；（２）由于实验、测试技术和热力学理论的发展，使得人们不仅可以很准确地计算变质岩石的Ｐ－Ｔ条件，而且可以在实验室中模拟多数天然变质反应；（３）以深入的显微结构分析为基础，探讨变质过程中变质结晶作用和变形作用之间的关系；（４）根据热传导理论和现代热力学的原理，正演和反演变质作用的ＰＴｔ轨迹，研究变质作用的动力学过程及其与区域构造环境的联系。     

月球形成演化与月球地质图编研

按照大碰撞假说,月球形成于一次大碰撞事件,抛射出的高能量物质留在绕地轨道上,最后吸积形成月球。月球核幔在早期迅速发生分离,并出现全球性的岩浆熔融,形成了岩浆圈层（岩浆洋）。岩浆洋的结晶分异和固化导致了月壳的形成。随着月壳与月幔发生持续分异,形成了固化的月壳。而在月球后期的演化历史中,撞击作用是最重要的地质作用,形成了多尺度、多期次的撞击盆地和撞击坑,而大型撞击盆地多形成于月球演化的早期。月球地质图是开展月球形成与演化研究的重要手段,从20世纪60年代起,到70年代末止,通过对阿波罗时代探月成果的系统总结,完成了第一轮月球地质图的研制。但尽管从20世纪90年代以来国际月球探测和月球科学的研究进入一个新的高潮,获得了大量有关月球形成和演化的新认识,但还没有正式的新的月球地质图发布,因此开展新一轮月球地质图的编研,系统总结后阿波罗时代的月球探测与研究成果,是非常必要和迫切的。在新一轮月球地质图的编制过程中,需重点关注图件比例尺的选择、月面历史的划分以及月球构造和岩石建造的表达。     

From dog sledge to satellite: Knud Ellitsgaard‐Rasmussen (1923–2009), geologist

Knud Ellitsgaard‐Rasmussen's career spanned an astounding period of change in the science. He was not a geologist whose name was widely known and it is probably true to say that few students today, even in his native Denmark, have heard of him. He was nevertheless a figure of huge importance to geological research in his role as someone who directed geology along very productive lines, creating an environment which was highly conducive to the successful careers of many talented researchers. He saw and presided over geology as it evolved from the heroic days of an individual with a dog‐sledge and a microscope to later days with armies of personnel, aircraft, marine geophysical vessels, the GPS and the ICP‐MS. He led the mapping of a subcontinent.     

晚新生代地质填图理论与方法的新探索

在评述中国现有地质填图（主要是中比例尺地质图）的历史、现状和问题的基础上,根据晚新生代地层的特点,以及笔者长期从事地貌、第四纪地质研究工作与填图实践积累的经验,以青藏高原及其邻区为例,提出了提高中国大比例尺地质图填图水平和加快填图工作进度的几点建议。认为认识晚新生代地层的基本特征是提高地质填图水平的基础;解译地形图和遥感图是确定晚新生代地层成因类型与分布范围的重要手段;要重视相对高度在划分晚新生代地层中的重要作用,建立填图单位的地层层序系统;强调同位素年龄测定与地层顺序判定之间的辩证关系：皇冠与皇冠上的宝石;加强青藏高原隆升、环境变迁研究与晚新生代地质填图的联系方能使二者相辅相成、相得益彰。     

浅议化石、矿物药与环境地质的关系

近年来,中医学者与地质学者、环境地球化学学者共同研究,订正了数十种矿物药的成分及应用范围。从20世纪60年代初始,中医学走出了传统的研究范围,与环境地质研究相结合,研究岩石、土壤、矿物、水中所含的有益有害元素的分布,研究了地方病的发生与治疗,取得了可喜的成果。     

中国地质科学50年的简要回顾

在世界之效科学技术大发展的现阶段,中国地质科学必将发展,因为它具箅了社会需求、科学问题和社会基础技术三个科学发展的条件。由于中国地质学奠基者的远见卓识,中国地质学在本世纪２０～３０年代已建立了世界声誉。新中国建立后,５０～７０年代中国地质科学取得迅速工。自７０年代珂至今的改革开放时期更取得了全面的发展。随着地球系统科学的新概念为广大地质学者所接受,地质学各分支学科必将走向互相交驻融合,形成综合的和     

Diurnal laminations in the varved sediment of Lake Lovojärvi, south Finland

A man-induced extensive silty layer in the sediment of Lake Lovojärvi, dating back to the year 1960, contained 18 laminations due to rhythmical variations in the size classes of the mineral particles. A good agreement was found between the thicknesses of the successive laminae, and one period in a sequence of arbitrary 'wind sums' calculated from the meteorological statistics of the spring 1960 for periods of winds exceeding 3 m/s. Most of these wind pulses were diurnal; the longest one lasted for five days. The deposition of the layer in early spring was further confirmed through diatom analysis, which revealed within the laminated sequence a diatom succession typical of Lake Lovojärvi immediately after the melting of ice in spring     

如何使用AutoGAD 2004编制图切剖面图

MAPGIS和AutoCAD 2004是地质勘查行业使用较为广泛的数字制图软件,二者各有优劣。本文介绍了一种在MAPGIS制作完成的地形地质图上,利用AutoCAD 2004制图程序完成图切剖面图编制的方法。     

复杂曲流带识别标志及其内部点坝叠加接触模式

以现代沉积为指导,通过岩芯、测井地质、地震沉积学分析研究复杂曲流带边界砂体类型及其内部结构特征,提出了识别地下复杂曲流带的典型标志,即曲流带边界处废弃河道的长度与曲流带边界的长度比值大于65%,尤其在曲流带凹岸一侧此比值超过85%。通过对比分析正演模型、测井地质剖面及分频后地震反射轴的波形及振幅,识别并总结出研究区曲流带内部主要发育点坝主体-初期点坝-初期河道边缘、点坝伊始-废弃河道、点坝伊始-点坝伊始、废弃河道-废弃河道、废弃河道-点坝伊始、末期河道-点坝等点坝间边界叠加类型,并在此基础上建立了研究区曲流带内部结构模式。     

青藏高原土壤冻结始日和终日的年际变化

利用青藏高原1981-1999年青海和西藏58个气象站观测的土壤冻结上、下限记录,分析了冻结始日、冻结终日的空间分布和年际变化特征.结果表明:最早、最晚和平均冻结始日的分布基本一致,都是由北向南逐渐推迟的;最早、最晚和平均冻结终日的空间分布也比较一致,呈现南北早、中部晚的特点.在20世纪80年代高原土壤冻结多偏早,解冻多偏晚,冻结日数偏多;而90年代正好相反,冻结多偏晚,解冻多偏早,冻结日数偏少;冻结始日有明显的3～4a周期变化,冻结终日有明显的准7a周期变化;1981年、1982年为冻结早、解冻晚年,1983年、1990年为冻结晚、解冻晚年,1993年、1999年为冻结晚、解冻早年.     

有限应变测量的关键原理——摩尔圆

20世纪60年代,在板块理论建立的同时,对变形岩石和矿田构造作定量分析以替代定性分析的有限应变测量方法也建立了起来。定量分析的主要标志是将摩尔圆方法从力学引入到地质学,同时也引入矿田构造分析中,并且得到改进与发展。有限应变摩尔圆为分析岩石大变形而建立,极摩尔圆随后为分析广布于野外岩石中的一般剪切变形而建立。我国著名学者李四光在此之前将应力摩尔圆和库仑准则从力学领域介绍到构造地质学,尔后一些中国学者为改进和发展极摩尔圆方法作出了自己的贡献。本文以浅显的方式解释摩尔圆的基本概念和作图方法,附带做些练习和解答。     

地质工程在链子崖危岩治理中的应用

面对链子崖浩翰的地质资料，往往使传统的设计人员无从下“海”而地质人员确实不也不能为力按照从如此众多的地质中凝缩出几个所谓的“参数”供设计人员使用，作者深感，从未遇到一个如此要求地质，设计与施工有结合，并以“地质”为主线纵贯始终，以“设计”为桥梁沟通“地质”与“施工”的工程。这就是地质工程。     

横断山板块缝合带构造剥蚀重力型堆积特征

区域山体稳定性是刘国昌先生于20世纪60年代提出区域工程地质学的内容之一,区域山体稳定性的问题受两个区域性要素的控制,即区域稳定性工程地质的区域性与地带性要素。本文以横断山区板块缝合带构造剥蚀重力型堆积特征为主要研究对象,说明区域稳定性工程地质区域性要素与横断山区铅直地带性要素对区域山体稳定性的影响。并且进一步论述了河床深厚覆盖层具有全球性特征,及其与冰期海平面下降以及区域地壳隆升两者之间的关系。     

Recent changes in the pace of population deconcentration in Britain

This paper uses the official annual population estimates to examine changes in the scale of urban-rural shift in the distribution of the British population since the 1960s. These reveal that the level of population deconcentration at regional and more local scales stood at its highest at the beginning of the 1970s and that since the mid 1970s the rate of population loss experienced by London and several other large cities has diminished markedly. An analysis of the components of population change reveals that trends in net migration have been primarily responsible, though generally reinforced by trends in natural change rates. It is concluded that, contrary to the impression of counterurbanisation being largely a feature of the 1970s as has generally been conveyed by the decennial analyses of Census data, most of that decade featured the downwave of a longer cycle of decentralisation which had its origins at least as early as the first half of the 1960s. Explanations for the rise of counterurbanisation in Britain should be sought primarily in this earlier decade, whereas the circumstances of the 1970s now appear more appropriate for explaining the subsequent slowdown in the process. This paper puts forward five sets of factors which seem to accord with this temporal pattern and which are believed to form a suitable starting point for its fuller explanation.     

军事遥感地质编图方法

军事地质成果产品体系是军事地质工作展示应用业绩的重要平台,而军事遥感地质调查成果图件是军事遥感地质调查的核心成果,其编图方法尤为重要。为了满足特殊遥感地质调查需求及规范成果图件编图标准,提出了军事遥感地质编图方法,并对其精度要求、图形编辑方法以及制图工作技术流程进行了初步探讨。通过对编图方法的规范,提高军事遥感地质图件的专业性与适用性,从而为战场建设、军事行动保障和非战争行动等方面提供信息支撑。     

变形构造分析的定量化与摩尔圆的引用与发展

20世纪60年代，与板块构造学说建立的同时，在构造地质学中还有一项革新，就是变形构造分析的定量化，从定性描述走向定量计算。定量化的重要标志就是将力学中的摩尔圆引入构造地质学，并且使其改进和发展，在构造地质分析中建立了有限应变摩尔圆，适应了大变形的分析，又建立了极摩尔圆，适应一般剪切的分析。我国地质学家在其中也做出了自己的贡献。     

Terrain stability mapping on British Columbia forest lands: an historical perspective

Land management associated with forest practices in British Columbia (BC) over the last three decades has led to the development of terrain stability hazard mapping. Terrain stability mapping (TSM) in BC originated in the early 1970s, when forest harvesting was progressing from valley bottoms onto steep, unstable terrain, which led to an increase in harvesting- and road-related landslides. Since then TSM methods have been evolved. Beginning in the early 1970s, terrain hazards were incorporated into the forest inventory classification system to delineate environmentally sensitive areas for land-use planning. By 1974, operational terrain stability maps were introduced by the MacMillan Bloedel forest company on the Queen Charlotte Islands. In the 1980s, this method was adopted by other forest companies and government agencies along the BC coast and then extended to the BC interior in the 1990s. The system was refined over time, based on new knowledge and on the introduction of mapping standards, including standards for capture and presentation of digital maps. In 1995, reconnaissance terrain stability mapping and detailed terrain stability mapping were formalized with three and five hazard classes, respectively. More recently, qualitative and semi-quantitative approaches to predict landslide occurrence based on terrain and landslide inventories have been incorporated into the techniques for TSM.     

碎屑岩系油气储层沉积学的发展历程与热点问题思考

随着世界各大产油国（区）油气勘探与开发成熟度的日益增高,储层地质问题业已上升为制约石油工业油气勘探开发的主要瓶颈问题之一。为了提高油气田勘探成功率与开发采收率,进一步实现“增储上产”之目的,全面开展储层多参数的空间展布的准确预测和表征方法技术研究已成为当前油气地质工作必不可少的内容,尤为重要的是它们均离不开储层沉积学这一根本基础。储层沉积学兴起于20世纪60年代,至今已有40多年的发展历程;本文在总结阐述国内外研究进展的基础上,分阶段地从这一学科的形成背景、石油工业的需求、多学科的相互渗透、专业化的形成与发展趋势等方面进行了阐述。同时,也对当前碎屑岩系储层沉积学所涉及的热点领域,如现代沉积与野外露头研究方法、地球物理方法的应用、多参数沉积相图的编制方法、层序地层学的应用、深水沉积储层的成因、地震沉积学的形成与应用、陆相盆地沉积充填模式以及储层成岩作用等方面进行了概述与讨论,并就我国如何深化这一学科研究提出了一些建议与应注意的问题。     

中国煤成油研究进展和展望

中国煤和含煤岩系内石油的发现是在５０￣６０年代，而提出应在我国进行煤和含煤岩成油问题的研究是８０年代初，自提出煤成油问题以来短短的十余年时间里，不仅在有机岩石学，煤成油地球化学，热模拟实验和煤成油综合研究等煤和含煤岩系成油理论上取得了进展，而且在油勘探的实践上，在吐鲁番和彩南取得了重要的进展。