Features of the atmospheric boundary layer block for three versions of the WAM wind wave model

The estimated characteristics of the atmospheric boundary layer, obtained by the simulation of wind wave fields using three versions of the WAM numerical model are compared with the well-known empirical dependences of drag coefficient C _d on wind speed U ₁₀ and wave age A, as well as with the dependence of dimensionless roughness height z _n on inverse wave age u*/с р. Calculations carried out for several years in the areas of the Pacific and Indian oceans, based on the ERA-interim and CFSR wind reanalyses have shown good agreement between the model and empirical dependences C _d (U ₁₀) and C _d (A). The range of estimated variability for z _n (u*/с _р ) has been found to be significantly less than empirical. It has been also found that estimated values of wind speed U _10W (t) are overestimated from 5 to 10% in all versions of WAM models compared with the input wind reanalysis U _10R (t) at the moments of appearance maximum values of wind U _10R (t). The reasons for the established features of the WAM model and their dependence on the model version are discussed.     

Measuring chlorophyll <Emphasis Type="Italic">a</Emphasis> concentrations in the Sea of Japan using probe and flow fluorimeters

The spatial variability of chlorophyll a concentrations was studied from the data of two near-shore expeditions and the cruise of the R/V Akademik M.A. Lavrent’ev in October–November 2010 over the northwestern part of the Sea of Japan. The sections across eddies showed a maximum of chlorophyll a at a depth of 40 m. According to the data from the cruise, the chlorophyll a concentration was maximum in the north of the sea and decreased to the south. In parallel, the procedures for chlorophyll a determination were compared for spectrophotometry with a fluorescence probe and a fluorescence flow system. The probe data of chlorophyll a fluorescence showed a high correlation with the chlorophyll a concentrations by spectrophotometry. On the contrary, data on chlorophyll a concentrations from spectrophotometry did not agree with those from the flow system. It was shown that a fluorimeter in the flow system recorded dissolved organic matter along with the chlorophyll a fluorescence.     

Determining the influence of wind-wave breaking on the dissipation of the turbulent kinetic energy in the upper ocean and on the dependence of the turbulent kinetic energy on the stage of wind-wave development

New experimental data that make it possible to explain and predict the observed variability of turbulent-energy dissipation in the upper ocean are discussed. For this purpose, the dependence of the energy dissipation rate of breaking wind waves on their propagation velocity (see [1]) is used. The turbulent-energy dissipation values obtained earlier in [2, 3] by a direct method are compared to the results of radar measurements of individual breaking events presented in [1]. On the basis of this comparison, a strong dependence of the turbulent-energy dissipation value on the stage of wind-wave development, which is characterized by the ratio U _a /c _p (U _a is the wind speed and c _p is the phase speed of the peak of the wind-wave spectrum) is confirmed. This dependence was found earlier purely empirically. Moreover, it is shown that the theoretically obtained dependence (c _p /U _a )⁴, does not contradict the available empirical data. The results of this study opens possibilities for scientifically substantiated calculations of greenhouse-gas exchange (specifically, CO₂ exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere).     

四种贝类和鱼类外寄生车轮虫的国内新纪录

车轮虫是一类主要寄生于贝类和鱼类体表的缘毛类纤毛虫原生动物。本文对分别寄生于海洋贝类－－虾夷扇贝Mizuhopecten yessoensis,半咸水鱼类－－鲻鱼Mugil cephalus和双色鳗鲡Anguilla bicolor bicolor,以及淡水鱼类－－光唇鱼Acrossocheilus fasciatus鳃表和体表的虾夷扇贝车轮虫Trichodina pectenis,亚卓车轮虫T.jadranica,急尖车轮虫T.acuta和喙状车轮虫T.rostrata,进行了详细的分类学研究。本文第一次报道了虾夷扇贝车轮虫的活体和蛋白银染色后特征,该虫体也是国内新记录种。其它三个车轮虫物种感染的鱼类,均属新纪录宿主。同时,也报道了这四种车轮虫对宿主的感染率和感染强度。     

Studying the sea surface slopes using an array of wave gauge sensors

The deviations of the marine surface slope spectra (measured using an array of wave gauge sensors) from the theoretical estimates obtained using the linear spectral model of the wave field are analyzed. It has been indicated that the average measured full slope spectra (the sum of the slope component spectra in the orthogonal directions) is higher than the theoretical estimates by 6% at frequencies from the surface wave spectral peak (f _m ) to 4.5 f _m . The difference between the measured and theoretical estimates of the full slope spectrum rapidly increases at frequencies of f < f _m . At f _m ≈ 0.75 f _m , the average measured full slope spectrum is higher than the theoretical estimate by a factor of more than 5.     

Simulating the Propagation of Infrasonic Waves and Estimating the Energy of the Chelyabinsk Meteoroid Explosion Observed on February 15, 2013

Results obtained from simulating the propagation of infrasonic waves from the Chelyabinsk meteoroid explosion observed on February 15, 2013, are given. The pseudodifferential parabolic equation (PDPE) method has been used for calculations. Data on infrasonic waves recorded at the IS31 station (Aktyubinsk, Kazakhstan), located 542.7 km from the likely location of the explosion, have been analyzed. Six infrasonic arrivals (isolated clearly defined pulse signals) were recorded. It is shown that the first “fast” arrival (F) corresponds to the propagation of infrasound in a surface acoustic waveguide. The rest of the arrivals (T1–T5) are thermospheric. The agreement between the results of calculations based on the PDPE method and experimental data is satisfactory. The energy E of the explosion has been estimated using two methods. One of these methods is based on the law of conservation of the acoustic pulse I, which is a product of the wave profile area S/2 of the signal under analysis and the distance to its source E _I [kt] = 1.38 × 10^–10 (I [kg/s])^1.482. The other method is based on the relation between the energy of explosion and the dominant period T of recorded signal E _T [kt] = 1.02 × (T [s]²/σ)^3/2, where σ is the dimensionless distance determining the degree of nonlinear effects during the propagation of sound along ray trajectories. According to the data, the explosion energy E _I,T ranges from 1.87 to 32 kt TNT.     

Variability of Particulate Organic Phosphorus in the Northwestern Part of the Black Sea

Based on long-term (1985–1995) monitoring data, the paper considers the peculiarities of seasonal variability in the spatial and vertical distribution of particulate organic phosphorus (Р_POM) in the surface layer and in the photosynthetic zone in the northwestern Black Sea. Regression equations, experimental data, and satellite observations for the chlorophyll a concentration allowed us to evaluate the seasonal longterm (1979–1995) variability in Р_POM in the surface layer and photosynthesis zone. The ratios of the concentrations of particulate organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and chlorophyll a are calculated and statistical estimates of seasonal changes in the Р_POM in the areas with different degrees of influence of river runoff and water of open seas are obtained. The consistency of intra-annual changes in the concentrations of Р_POM, chlorophyll a, and phytoplankton biomass is shown, which indicates the role of phytoplankton in the formation of Р_POM and in its intra- and interannual variability in the northwestern part of the sea. It is shown that long-term seasonal variations in Р_POM and related changes in the concentration of chlorophyll a depend on the variability of bulk river runoff, the extent of its abundance in the northwestern shelf, and regional hydrometeorological conditions.     

Estimating the parameters of pulsed sources from data on acoustic waves recorded in the atmosphere

The possibility of estimating the parameters of surface pulsed sources from data on acoustic waves recorded in the atmosphere is studied. Experimental values are given for peak pressure P ₊ of recorded acoustic signals, wave-profile area S ₊ in their positive phase, and length t ₊ of this phase, and the approximations of these parameters are obtained within wide ranges of source energy 10^–3 < E < 10¹⁰ kg TNT and scaled distances 1 < R/E ^1/3 < 4 × 10⁴ m/kg^1/3. Conventional methods of estimating the acoustic energy E according to data obtained from acoustic measurements in the atmosphere are analyzed, and ways to improve their accuracy are proposed. The influence of the type of explosions on the parameters P ₊, S ₊, and t ₊ of acoustic signals at long distances R/E ^1/3 > 500 m/kg^1/3 from explosions is shown.     

Morphological identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alexandrium</Emphasis> species (Dinophyceae) from Jinhae-Masan Bay,Korea

Outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and dense blooms caused by Alexandrium species in Jinhae-Masan Bay, Korea have been nearly annual events for many years. However, excluding some Alexandrium species responsible for PSP, there are no critical reports on the morphology of Alexandrium species in this bay. To identify the Alexandrium species based on detailed morphological features, vegetative cells collected water samples and established by the incubation of resting cysts isolated from sediment trap samples were analyzed. Four species of Alexandrium were identified: Alexandrium affine, A. fundyense, A. catenella, and A. insuetum. Morphological features of these species were basically consistent with those outlined in previous studies. However, the ventral pore and the connecting pore on the sulcal plate, which have been accepted as diagnostic characteristics for the identification of A. fundyense and A. catenella, need to be reevaluated, indicating that useful morphological features for identifying these two species should be recommended to avoid confusion in the classification of species in genus Alexandrium.     

Ultimate Lateral Capacity of Rigid Pile in <Emphasis Type="Italic">c</Emphasis>–<Emphasis Type="Italic">φ</Emphasis> Soil

To date no analytical solution of the pile ultimate lateral capacity for the general c–φ soil has been obtained. In the present study, a new dimensionless embedded ratio was proposed and the analytical solutions of ultimate lateral capacity and rotation center of rigid pile in c–φ soils were obtained. The results showed that both the dimensionless ultimate lateral capacity and dimensionless rotation center were the univariate functions of the embedded ratio. Also, the ultimate lateral capacity in the c–φ soil was the combination of the ultimate lateral capacity (f _c ) in the clay, and the ultimate lateral capacity (f _φ ) in the sand. Therefore, the Broms chart for clay, solution for clay (φ=0) put forward by Poulos and Davis, solution for sand (c=0) obtained by Petrasovits and Awad, and Kondner’s ultimate bending moment were all proven to be the special cases of the general solution in the present study. A comparison of the field and laboratory tests in 93 cases showed that the average ratios of the theoretical values to the experimental value ranged from 0.85 to 1.15. Also, the theoretical values displayed a good agreement with the test values.     

Mesoscale eddy effects on temporal variability of surface chlorophyll a in the Kuroshio Extension

We investigated the relationship between chlorophyll a (Chl-a) concentrations estimated from satellite observations and the activity of eddies in the Kuroshio Extension region. High (low) area-averaged Chl-a concentrations were frequently observed in the core of cyclonic (anticyclonic) eddies. Such relationships between Chl-a concentrations and eddy cores were not frequently observed in the southern part of the recirculation gyre, and advection of background meridional gradient of Chl-a by eddy-edge currents accounted for Chl-a spatial variability. Decadal-scale changes of Chl-a concentrations around the Kuroshio Extension were strongly affected by eddy activity and transport but not by large-scale near-surface isopycnal heaving. We also found that decadal changes of nutrient concentrations near the main stream could affect Chl-a concentrations in the southern part of the recirculation gyre via southward transport of eddies and mean flow.     

On four closely related hypotrichous ciliates (Protozoa, Ciliophora, Spirotrichea): molecular characters, interspecific relationships and phylogeny defined with multigene sequence information

In order to clarify the phylogeny and relationships of the most confused hypotrichous ciliates, Holosticha-complex, four closely related holostichids (five populations), Holosticha bradburyae, H. diademata, Anteholosticha sp., and A. manca, were compared and analyzed using ITS2 secondary structures, ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region and SSrRNA gene sequences. The ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region sequences of these four species were first sequenced, and they shared sequence identities ranging from 68.0% to 90.1%, while two populations of Anteholosticha sp. differed in three nucleotides (sequence identity 99.8%). There were several minor differences among ITS2 secondary structures of these species, while two populations of Anteholosticha sp. had the identical secondary structure. Phylogenetic trees inferred from the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region sequences of stichotrichs using multiple algorithms (Neighbor-Joining, Maximum Parsimony and Bayesian) revealed similar topologies. The results show that:(1) Holosticha bradburyae and H. diademata firmly clustered together with strong bootstrap supports, forming a sister clade with Anteholosticha sp., (2) Anteholosticha appeared to be a paraphyletic assemblage, in which the morphotype A. manca was more closely related to Diaxonella trimarginata than to its congener Anteholosticha sp. Phylogenetic analyses based on the SSrRNA gene and the combined sequences of SSrRNA gene and ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region revealed the similar relationships between Holosticha and Anteholosticha, nevertheless their positions within the subclass Stichotrichia differed from each other inferred from different genes.     

Parametrization of turbulent fluxes over inhomogeneous landscapes

Reasons for the nonclosure of the heat balance in the atmospheric boundary layers over natural land surfaces are analyzed. Results of measuring the heat-balance components over different land surfaces are used. The Cabauw (Netherlands) data (obtained throughout 1996 over a grass surface with intermittent shrubs and single trees) and the data from the Anchor station in Germany (measured over coniferous forest in 2000–2001) are analyzed. In all, the analysis involves about fifty thousand independent values of the heat-balance components measured in the experiments, which should be indicative of the reliability of the results obtained in the paper. The data have shown that the heat balance is not closed and the imbalance is 50–250 W/m². The sum of the latent and sensible heat fluxes λE + H = STF is found to be systematically smaller than the difference between the net radiation and the heat flux into the ground R _n ? G. It is shown that the main cause of a systematic heat imbalance in the atmospheric boundary layers over inhomogeneous land surfaces is that the methods of surface-flux measurement and estimation are based on the theory that requires the hypothesis of stationarity and horizontal homogeneity. Direct data analysis has shown that the heat imbalance increases with landscape inhomogeneity. In the paper, a parametrization of the heat imbalance is carried out and the coefficient k _f (z ₀ ^ef /L ^ef ) is introduced as a measure of inhomogeneity. For this, data from the experiments FIFE, KUREX, TARTEX, SADE, etc., are also used. Empirical formulas are presented to refine the results of direct measurements and calculations of surface fluxes over natural (inhomogeneous) land surfaces from profile and standard (using bulk parametrizations) data. These formulas can also be used to determine surface fluxes over inhomogeneous underlying land surfaces in order to take into account so-called subgrid-scale effects in constructing prediction models.     

Features of the spatial distribution of phytoplankton in Nhatrang Bay of the South China Sea during the rainy season

The species composition, phytoplankton abundance, and relative yield of the variable fluorescence (F _v /F _m ) were determined in the mesotrophic Nhatrang Bay in October–November of 2004. The species diversity (250 taxonomic units) and heterogeneity of the phytoplankton structure were high. With respect to the number of species and their abundance, diatoms prevailed. In selected parts of the bay, dinoflagellates dominated. The mean biomass in the water column under 1 m² (B _t ) varied from 2.3 to 64.4 mg C/m³ being 31.0 mg C/m³ on average. The values of B _t were the lowest at the stations nearest to the river mouth. Seaward, B _t increased. The values of B _t increased with depth at some stations and decreased at others. In the surface sea layers, the biomass was lower than that in the underlying waters. The values of F _v /F _m ranged from 0.10 to 0.64 (at a mean value of 0.49). The lowest values of F _v /F _m were observed in the area close to the seaport. Over the greater part of the bay, the values of F _v /F _m were higher than 0.47. Such values are indicative of the relatively high potential photosynthetic activity of the phytoplankton. The abundance and species diversity were higher than those in the dry season (March–April).     

The spatial and seasonal variation of trace metals in coastal seawater and soft tissue of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chthamalus montagui</Emphasis> around the northwest coast of Portugal

Metal concentrations (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn) were determined in seawaters and soft tissues of Chthamalus montagui from the northwest coast of Portugal during the four seasons of 2011. The main objectives of this work were to assess seasonal and spatial variations of metals in order to detect hot spots of contamination, to establish correlations between metals in coastal seawaters and C. montagui and to calculate metal bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) in each season. Metal concentrations in coastal seawaters ranged within Cd: 1.2–35 ng L^?1; Cr: 15–87 ng L^?1; Mn: 77–1763 ng L^?1; Cu: 126–1819 ng L^?1; Fe: 430–4048 ng L^?1 and Zn: 2889–16867 ng L^?1 and in C. montagui ranged for Cd: 0.39–1.98 mg kg^?1; Cr: 0.45–3.13 mg kg^?1; Cu: 0.93–5.70 mg kg^?1; Mn: 2.2–20.4 mg kg^?1; Fe: 135–707 mg kg^?1 and Zn: 119–782 mg kg^?1. Significant spatial and seasonal variations were found between: (i) metal concentrations in seawaters and C. montagui tissues; (ii) the distribution of metal concentrations in C. montagui tissues were Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu > Cr > Cd and (iii) C. montagui showed higher bioaccumulation factors for Fe and Cd than for Cu, Mn and Zn in all seasons. Regarding the metal concentrations accumulated in C. montagui tissues during each season of 2011, the ecological quality classifications of the NW coast of Portugal varied from “Class I–Unpolluted” to “Class III–Remarkably Polluted”.     

Using the acoustic-pulse conservation law in estimating the energy of surface acoustic sources by remote sounding

The atmospheric effect on the characteristics of infrasonic signals from explosions has been studied. New methods have been proposed to remotely estimate the energy of explosions using the data of infrasonic wave registration. One method is based on the law of conservation of acoustic pulse I, which is equal to the product of the wave profile area S/2 of the studied infrasonic signal and the distance to the source E_I [kt] = 1.38 × 10^–10 (I [kg/s])^1.482. The second method is based on the relationship between the explosion energy and the dominant period T of the recorded signal, EТ [kt] =1.02 × (Т [s]²/σ)^3/2, where σ is a dimensionless distance used for determining the degree of manifestation of nonlinear effects in the propagation of sound along ray trajectories. When compared to the conventional E_W (Whitaker’s) relation, the advantage of the EI relation is that it can be used for pulsed sources located at an arbitrary height over the land surface and having an arbitrary form of the initial-pulse profile and for any type of infrasonic arrivals. A distinctive feature of the expression for E_Т is that the atmospheric effect on the characteristics of recorded infrasonic signals is explicitly taken into account. These methods have been tested using infrasonic data recorded at a distance of 322 km from the sources (30 explosions caused by a fire that occurred at the Pugachevo armory in Udmurtia on June 2, 2011). For the same explosion, empirical relations have been found between energy values obtained by different methods: E_I = 1.107 × E _W , E _Т = 2.201 × E _I .     

A new formula for saturated water steam pressure within the temperature range −25 to 220°C

Instead of approximation formula ln(E(t)/E(0)) = [(a ? bt)t/(c + T)] commonly used at present for representing dependence of pressure of saturated streams of liquid water E upon temperature we suggested new approximation formula of greater accuracy in the form ln(E(t)/E(0)) = [(A ? Bt + Ct ²)t/T], where t and T are temperature in °C and K respectively. For this formula with parameters A = 19.846, B = 8.97 × 10^?3, C = 1.248 × 10^?5 and E(0) = 6.1121 GPa with ITS-90 temperature scale and for temperature range from 0°C to 110°C relative difference of approximation applying six parameter formula by W. Wagner and A. Pruß 2002, developed for positive temperatures, is less than 0.005%, that is approximately 15 times less than accuracy obtained with the firs formula. Increase of temperature range results in relative difference increasing, but for even temperature range from 0°C to 220°C it does not higher than 0.1%. For negative temperatures relative difference between our formula and a formula of D. M. Murphy and T. Koop, 2005, is less than 0.1% for temperatures higher than ?25°C. This paper also presents values of coefficients for approximation of Goff and Grach formula recommended by IMO. The procedure of finding dew point T _d for known water steam pressure e _n based on our formula adds up to solving an algebraic equation of a third degree, which coefficients are presented in this paper. For simplifying this procedure this paper also includes approximation ratio applying a coefficient A noted above, in the form T _d (e _n ) = \(\frac{{AT_0 }}{{A - \varepsilon }}\) + 0.0866?² + 0.0116?^10/3, where ? = ln(e _n /E(T ₀)). Error of dew point recovery in this ratio is less than 0.005 K within the range from 0 to 50°C.     

Accumulation of Chemical Elements in the Dominant Species of Copepods in the Ob Estuary and the Adjacent Shelf of the Kara Sea

Studies were carried out in the Ob River estuary and at the adjacent shelf of the Kara Sea. The concentrations of organic carbon, lipids, major elements (Na, Mg, P, S, K, and Ca), trace elements (Li, Be, B, Al, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Y, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sb, Cs, Ba, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Th, and U), and rare-earth elements (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and Lu) were determined in the dominant species of mesozooplankton (Senecella siberica, Limnocalanus macrurus, and Calanus spp.). The similarities and differences are shown for the chemical compositions of the specimens. Calanus spp. are characterized by a large Li accumulation with concentrations ~350 times higher than those in S. siberica and L. macrurus. The total accumulation of chemical elements per unit volume is higher in L. macrurus than in S. siberica and Calanus spp., amounting to 6.63, 0.69, and 0.41 mg, respectively. The intensity of biological accumulation and the spatial disposition of the area of maximum accumulation of elements in the zooplankton community within the boundaries of the Ob River estuary depend on the hydrophysical conditions. Postmortem variations in the concentrations of chemical elements in dead L. macrurus are characterized by a multidirectional nature. The revealed distinctions of the chemical compositions in live and dead L. macrurus represent the features of lifetime and postmortem concentrations of elements.     

On the role of abiogenic factors in the bioaccumulation of heavy metals by the hydrothermal fauna of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

The distributions of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, Cr, Pb, As, Ag, Cd, Se, Sb, and Hg in 128 samples of tissues of the organisms that inhabit hydrothermal vent fields of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Menez Gwen, Snake Pit, and Rainbow) depending on the abiotic environmental parameters were studied. The majority of the elements studied showed direct correlations between their concentrations in the fluids released and in the tissues of hydrothermal organisms. A higher degree of bioaccumulation of metals was revealed in the Bathymodiolus mussels and Rimicaris shrimps from the Rainbow hydrothermal vent field as compared to their analogues from Menez Gwen and Snake Pit. This corresponds to the maximum concentrations of the majority of the metals studied in the Rainbow high-temperature hydrothermal fluids. The highest degree of bioaccumulation of heavy metals was found in gills of the symbiotrophic mussels Bathymodiolus and in maxillipeds of the ectosymbiotic shrimps Rimicaris, i.e., in the organs that function in dependence on chemosynthetic bacteria. Within the Rainbow vent field, the shrimps, which inhabit in biotopes with more high-temperature conditions and therefore are more strongly subjected to the influence of fluids, were found to contain higher metal contents than mollusks. The Fe-Mn hydroxide films that cover mussel shells might serve as important reservoirs of other metals related to Fe and Mn.