Difficulties in the application of magnetic field gradient analysis to induction studies

Geomagnetic variation data recorded across an array of magnetometer stations in northern England have been used to compute an inductive response function. The function, if successfully determined, is appropriate for sounding vertical conductivity structures on a regional scale. The method employed is the horizontal spatial gradient method using station averaging and a linear approximation. It is found that, for the data under consideration, local and lateral anomalous fields exist in all three components at periods ranging from 10 to 10⁴ s. The presence of such anomalous fields invalidates the procedures used to estimate the regional field, whose characteristics are required to determine successfully the inductive response function.     

The mean value concept in mono-linear regression of multi-variables and its application to trace studies in geosciences

The "mean value concept" in a mono-linear regression of multi-variables is clarified.Its applications to reconstruction of the past 90-year salinity of the sea surface water in Xisha Islands and to tracing the past 80 ka paleo-geomagnetic events from the Luochuan loess 10Be record are introduced in detail,which show the significance and the potential of the "mean value concept" in geoscience research.     

GIS技术在地震学研究中的应用

地理信息系统(Geographic Information Systems，简称GIS)是处理空间信息的强大工具.目前GIS技术广泛应用于地震分析预报、地震灾害预测和辅助决策、地震区划等地震学研究领域.我国目前已开始进行这方面的研究，并取得重大进展和成果.本文具体论述了GIS在我国地震学中的应用状况，分析了目前存在的问题，给出了解决问题的方法.     

The physical properties of quartz-micaschist and their application to freeze-thaw weathering studies in the maritime antarctic

As part of a study on freeze-thaw weathering in the maritime Antarctic an investigation was made of the physical properties of the local rock. Tests were made of point-load compressive strength, Schmidt hammer in situ rock strength, moisture content, indentor resistance and the size range of weathering products. The resulting data were used to consider the form of freeze-thaw weathering operative in the field and its relationship to laboratory simulations. A distinct difference between ‘massive rock’ and ‘intact rock’ is observed in the field. It is suggested that future studies should generate a greater database pertaining to rock properties as it is an invaluable aid in the study of mechanical weathering.     

Effluent trading for water quality management: concept and application to the Chesapeake Bay watershed

This paper examines the present and potential role of effluent trading in water quality management. In particular, it focuses upon the case of the Chesapeake Bay on the east coast of the US, where the implementation of a trading system has been discussed and undertaken. Potential benefits of effluent trading include advantages such as the following: (1) With appropriate monitoring and enforcement, the total pollutant loadings can be kept at or below the prespecified level. (2) New and expanding dischargers can be accommodated, as long as they purchase credits. (3) Abatement costs of pollutants can be reduced. (4) Flexible regulations incorporating trading can reduce the incentive for industries to relocate to areas with less stringent water quality regulation. (5) Broader environmental goals can be addressed, such as wildlife habitat provision and endangered species protection. (6) Preliminary studies with a view to trading-system implementation encourage discussion and dialogue among stakeholders, and positively foster concerted, holistic solutions for maintenance of water bodies.     

The application of satellite systems for crustal deformation studies

Measurements of crustal deformations provide important quantitative data for use in the study of the properties of materials and processes in the Earth's interior, and also for the purposes of delineation of active faults by which oil and gas deposits might be confined.Only the usage of satellite systems makes it possible to conduct deformometric studies over large areas and to accomplish measurements within reasonable time periods. The satellite system discussed here is based on the following concepts: pairs of satellites exchange phase information as the result of which the paired satellites emit coherent signal observed at ground sites by the interferometric method. In this process, the measured value is an increment of the difference of distances from the ground site to the two satellites.     

基于虚拟仪器技术的声-电效应观测系统及其在冻土模型研究中的应用

详细介绍了介质的声-电转换效应的产生机理、利用虚拟仪器技术来搭建声-电观测系统的原理、软硬件系统和实现方法.搭建的观测系统可以实现高分辨率、高采样率和多次叠加的数据采集,极大的增强了采集的微弱声-电信号的信噪比.该系统还具有混合信号同步采集功能,可以方便的通过改变接收传感器进行声-声和声-电两种信号的基本同步测量,为声-电信号的观测和分析提供重要的参考信息.文章以观测干砂摸型的声-电响应,和冻土模型的声-声和声-电响应两个具体实例验证了该观测系统的可行性和优越性.     

A modified multiple tension upward infiltration method to estimate the soil hydraulic properties

Determination of saturated hydraulic conductivity, K_s, and the shape parameters α and n of the water retention curve, θ(h), is of paramount importance to characterize the water flow in the vadose zone. This work presents a modified upward infiltration method to estimate K_s, α and n from numerical inverse analysis of the measured cumulative upward infiltration (CUI) at multiple constant tension lower boundary conditions. Using the HYDRUS‐2D software, a theoretical analysis on a synthetic loam soil under different soil tensions (0, 0–10, 0–50 and 0–100 cm), with and without an overpressure step of 10 cm high from the top boundary condition at the end of the upward infiltration process, was performed to check the uniqueness and the accuracy of the solutions. Using a tension sorptivimeter device, the method was validated in a laboratory experiment on five different soils: a coarse and a fine sand, and a 1‐mm sieved loam, clay loam and silt‐gypseous soils. The estimated α and n parameters were compared to the corresponding values measured with the TDR‐pressure cell method. The theoretical analysis demonstrates that K_s and θ(h) can be simultaneously estimated from measured upward cumulative infiltration when high (>50 cm) soil tensions are initially applied at the lower boundary. Alternatively, satisfactory results can be also obtained when medium tensions (<50 cm) and the K_s calculated from the overpressure step at the end of the experiment are considered. A consistent relationship was found between the α (R² = 0.86, p < 0.02) and n (R² = 0.97, p < 0.001) values measured with the TDR‐pressure cell and the corresponding values estimated with the tension sorptivimeter. The error between the α (in logarithm scale) and n values estimated with the inverse analysis and the corresponding values measured with pressure chamber were 3.1 and 6.1%, respectively. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Steady state behaviour of the black ven mudslide: The application of archival analytical photogrammetry to studies of landform change

The concept of dynamic equilibrium has provided geomorphologists with a challenging paradigm for studying landform evolution but quantitative evidence for its existence has proved illusive, particularly for complex geomorphological systems. The authors believe that the principle has now been verified through the application of the ‘archival photogrammetric technique’ to a sequence of historical photographs spanning 50 years of process at the Black Ven mudslide complex in Dorset, U.K. The principles and limitations of the archival photogrammetric technique are described. The method is applied to oblique and vertical aerial photographs of Black Ven at five epochs, commencing in 1946, continuing at approximately 10 year intervals until 1988. The technique is used to generate plans/contours/sections and a dense and accurate digital elevation model (DEM) of the whole site at each epoch. This is used to generate ‘DEMs of difference’ and a ‘distribution of slope angle’ which suggest that the mudslides are in equilibrium despite the removal of 200 000 m³ of sediment between 1958 and 1988. Extrapolation of the slope distribution through time suggests that the frequency of an episodic landform change model at Black Ven may be approximately 60 years.     

Analogue model studies of induction effects at auroral latitudes

In addition to field observations and numerical models, geomagnetic induction effects can be studied by scaled analogue model experiments. We present here results of analogue model studies of the auroral electrojet with an Earth model simulating the Arctic Ocean and inland conductivity structures in northern Fennoscandia. The main elements of the analogue model used were salt water simulating the host rock, an aluminium plate corresponding to the ocean and graphite pieces producing the inland highly conducting anomalies. The electrojet was a time-harmonic line current flowing at a (simulated) height of 100 km above northern Fennoscandia. The period simulated was 9 min.The analogue model results confirmed the well-known rapid increase of the vertical field when the coast is approached from the continent. The increase of the horizontal field due to induced ocean currents was demonstrated above the ocean, as well as the essentially negligible effect of these currents on the horizontal field on the continent.The behaviour of the magnetic field is explained with a simple two-dimensional thin-sheet model. The range, or the adjustment distance, of the ocean effect inland was found to be some hundreds of kilometers, which also agrees with earlier results of the Siebert-Kertz separation of IMAGE magnetometer data. The modelled inland anomalies evidently had too large conductivities, but on the other hand, their influence decayed on scales of only some tens of kilometers.Analogue model results, thin-sheet calculations, and field observations show that the induction effect on the horizontal magnetic field B_x near the electrojet is negligible. On the other hand, the vertical component B_z is clearly affected by induced currents in the ocean. Evidence of this is the shift of the zero point of B_z 0-1° southwards from the maximum of B_x. The importance of these results are discussed, emphasizing the determination of ionospheric currents.     

The memory of the accreting plate boundary and the continuity of fracture zones

A detailed aeromagnetic anomaly map of the Mesozoic seafloor-spreading lineations southwest of Bermuda reveals the dominant magnetic grain of the oceanic crust and the character of the accreting boundary at the time of crustal formation. The magnetic anomaly pattern is that of a series of elongate lobes perpendicular to the fracture zone (flowline) trends. The linear sets of magnetic anomaly peaks and troughs have narrow regions of reduced amplitude anomalies associated with the fracture zones. During the period of Mesozoic geomagnetic polarity reversals (when 1200 km of central North Atlantic seafloor formed), the Atlantic accreting boundary consisted of stationary, elongate, spreading center cells that maintained their independence even though sometimes only minor spatial offsets existed between cells. Normal oceanic crustal structure was formed in the spreading center cells, but structural anomalies and discontinuities characteristic of fracture zones were formed at their boundaries, which parallel flowlines of Mesozoic relative plate motion in the central North Atlantic. We suggest that the memory for a stationary pattern of independent spreading center cells resides in the young brittle lithosphere at the accreting boundary where the lithosphere is weakest; here, each spreading center cell independently goes through its cylce of stress buildup, stress release, and crustal accretion, after which its memory is refreshed. The temporal offset between the peaks of the accretionary activity that takes place within each cell may provide the mechanism for maintaining the independence of adjacent spreading center cells through times when no spatial offset between the cells exists.     

Application of relaxation method to upward continuation of gravity and magnetic data

Summary The method of relaxation has been applied to the upward continuation of gravity and magnetic data. The method yields results that are more accurate than those given byPeters' scheme, and has certain added advantages. In an alternative approach, the finite Fourier sine transform has been used to reduce an area relaxation to a series of line relaxations. The results, again, are very satisfactory. Only the two-dimensional problem is considered, but, with the help of a digital computor, the method is directly extensible to three-dimensional problems.Presented at the symposium on Geophysical Prospecting held by the Central Board of Geophysics at Baroda (India) between Aug. 15–17, 1959. Published by kind permission of Secretary, Central Board of Geophysics.     

On the bulk parameterization of snow and its application to the quantitative studies of precipitation growth

Appropriate formulation of bulk parameterization of snow growth and evaporation based on observational characteristics of snow particles is presented. The parameterization is compared to that of S. A. Rutledge and P. V. Hobbs and to detailed treatment in which snow particles are assumed to grow or evaporate in each size bin separately. On the contrary to bulk parameterization of rain, snow diffusional growth or evaporation is accurately represented in the suggested bulk formulation, but growth by riming is overpredicted. Integrations of water budget equations in a one-dimensional updraft have shown that quantitative results, e.g., precipitation intensity, cloudwater content, supersaturation with respect to ice, depend on the parameterization scheme employed, which suggests that comparisons of field measurements with parameterized model outputs is usually not straightforward.     

Regional induction studies: A review of methods and results

The geomagnetic skin-effect is specified by setting three length scales in relation to each other: L₁ for the overhead source. L₂ for the lateral non-uniformity of the subsurface conductor, L₃ for the depth of penetration of a quasi-uniform transient field into this conductor. Relations for the skin-effect of a quasi-uniform source in layered conductors are generalized to include sources of any given geometry by introducing response kernels as functions of frequency and distance. They show that only those non-uniformities of the source which occur within a distance comparable to L₃ from the point of observation are significant. The skin-effect of a quasi-uniform source in a laterally non-uniform earth is expressed by linear transfer functions for the surface impedance and the surface ratio of vertical/horizontal magnetic variations. In the case of elongated structures and E-polarisation of the source, a modified apparent resistivity is defined which as a function of depth and distance gives a first orientation about the internal distribution of conductivity. The skin-effect of a non-uniform source in a non-uniform earth is considered for stationary and “running” sources. Recent observations on the sea floor and on islands indicate a deep-seated change of conductivity at the continent—ocean transition, bringing high conductivity close to the surface, a feature which may not prevail, however, over the full width of the ocean. There is increasingly reliable evidence for high conductivities (0.02 to 0.1 micro ^?1 m^?1) at subcrustal or even at crustal depth beneath certain parts of the continents, in some cases without obvious correlation to geological structure.     

Terminology and symbols for use in studies of electromagnetic induction in the Earth

Induction studies currently suffer from a bewildering number of terms describing the same phenomenon, by definitions which are incompatible and by diverse and confusing presentation methods. IAGA Working Group I-2 (Electromagnetic Induction in the Earth) established an ad hoc Semantics Committee charged with proposing a set of standard terminologies and presentation methods for use in geomagnetic induction studies. The main text of this paper details the proposed standards following much involvement with the induction community. Background information detailing this involvement is given in a series of appendices.     

The concept of an expanding earth

This paper is a review of the results of different authors relating to the growth of the Earth’s mass and energy during geological history, as the planet was absorbing the energy and matter of the space vacuum (the ether). The result must be simple chemical elements and compounds. In fact, the “gas breathing” coming from the Earth’s interior transports great amounts of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, methane, carbon monoxide and dioxide, water, and other simple compounds to the Earth’s surface. Apart from expanding the size of the planet, the absorption of energy and matter from the vacuum also intensifies volcanic, tectonic, and other geological processes as time goes on. For this reason the evolution of the Earth can be considered as antientropic. The consequences of the concept of an expanding Earth should be taken into account in studies in tectonics, petrology, lithology, petroleum geology, ecology, volcanology, and seismology.     

高频感应测井仪器的响应特性及其应用研究

本文从高频感应测井仪器(VIKIZ)的线圈系结构及其工作原理出发,研究了仪器响应中井眼和偶极子模型的影响,获得了井眼校正方法和偶极子校正方法.同时提出了从高频测量信号中提取介电常数方法.研究表明,在盐水泥浆情况下,井眼因素对测井响应的影响不能忽略,要进行井眼校正.研究成果针对理想地层模型进行了验证,所开发处理软件已经成功用于处理实际测井资料中.     

The application of cellular automata to the erosion of landforms

Two approaches to modelling surface erosion are described which can be used to explain the development of geomorphological features. The first approach uses non-linear wave theory and shows how surface gradient discontinuities can arise as the erosion of an initially smooth surface proceeds. For isotropic erosion, surface shapes may be predicted by a simple application of the Huyghens wavefront construction and Snell's law at media boundaries. A second approach uses a computational cellular method. The general shapes predicted by the computer simulations are shown to agree with those determined from the wave approach. The application of the cellular method to problems of geomorphological interest are discussed.     

Application of the Mussel Watch concept in studies of the distribution of hydrocarbons in the coastal zone of the Ebro Delta

The Mussel Watch concept was applied in a study of man-induced chemical changes in the Ebro Delta on the Catalonian coast to obtain a preliminary assessment of the distribution of synthetic organic compounds, petroleum and biogenic hydrocarbons in the local coastal zone. Mussels, oysters and clams were selected as the indicator organisms. Levels of petroleum accumulated by mussels were generally high, in the order of 100–800 μg^?1 dry weight, equivalent to those in mussels in the most polluted harbours and bays of California. The relative distributions of the steranes and pentacyclic triterpanes in the mussels were significantly different from those found in petroleum from a local field, indicating that local petroleum was not contributing to the present contamination. The composition of biogenic compounds was variable, probably reflecting differences in the composition of local plankton communities, PCB levels were high in relation to current levels in mussels from US sites, reflecting continuing PCB use in Spain. The Delta appears to be a point source of a number of organochlorine compounds, including HCB, the DDT compounds, endrin and γ-chlordane. Levels of the DDT compound o,p′-DDD, a pharmacologically active substance, were unexpectedly high; identification was confirmed by GS/MS. Many unidentified peaks were present on EC chromatograms, indicating a more complex pattern of contamination than might be suggested by printed summaries of data.