DEVELOPMENT OF THE 2-D COUPLED STRATOSPHERICTROPOSPHERIC DYNAMICAL-RADIATIVE-CHEMICAL MODEL—PART Ⅱ: THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF SENSITIVITY EXPERIMENTS

By using the 2-D stratospheric-tropospheric dynamic-radiative-chemical coupled model,some sensitivity experiments have been done,which are interactions among ozone,radiation and temperature,vapor effects,as well as effects of source and sink.The result of temperature experiment shows that feedback interaction among ozone,radiation and temperature,mainly occurs in the upper and middle stratosphere,the maximum of ozone concentration decrease is 1ppm,the maximum of temperature change is 6 K,and the maximum of total ozone change is 20 DU.From the experiment of water vapor,we can see that the area of the middle and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere is sensitive to vapor change.When the maximum difference between both surface sources is in the Antarctic,the maximum of ozone change is also there.Because the character of surface varies with latitude,dry deposition is different in different latitudes.The change of dry deposition makes ozone in boundary layer quite obvious,especially in both poles.The maximum change of total volume ozone in experiments of vapor,source and sink is more than 12 DU.     

DEVELOPMENT OF THE 2-D COUPLED STRATOSPHERIC-TROPOSPHERIC DYNAMICAL-RADIATIVE-CHEMICAL MODEL—PART Ⅰ:THE DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL AND ITS PRELIMINARY RESULTS

In this paper,a two-dimensional(2-D)coupled stratospheric-tropospheric dynamical-radiative-chemical model has been developed,and some preliminary results have been given.From theseresults we can see that the latitude-height distribution characteristics and the seasonal variation ofthe dynamical fields such as atmospheric temperature,wind field,etc.can be effectively simulatedby using this model;and the modelled latitude-height distribution of trace gases gives theirdistribution characteristics and seasonal variation rather well.All of these are testimony to thestrong ability of the model.     

DEVELOPMENT OF THE 2-D COUPLED STRATOSPHERIC-TROPOSPHERIC DYNAMICAL-RADIATIVE-CHEMICAL MODEL—PART Ⅲ:BUDGET OF TROPOSPHERIC OZONE

On the basis of original 2-D coupled model,36 species and 83 reactions about NMHCs areadded.By using this model,the budgets of ozone,carbon monoxide and methane in thetroposphere are analyzed.The results show that the amount of ozone transported from thestratosphere to the troposphere is about 1340 Tg/a,its producing rate in troposphere is about 1190Tg/a and the amount of ozone cleared by the dry deposition in troposphere is 1700Tg/a.Introposphere,the ozone is mainly produced at lower level in middle latitudes of the NorthernHemisphere and at upper levels in tropics.     

DEVELOPMENT OF THE 2-D COUPLED STRATOSPHERIC-TROPOSPHERIC DYNAMICAL-RADIATIVE-CHEMICAL MODEL-PART Ⅲ:BUDGET OF TROPOSPHERIC OZONE*

On the basis of original 2-D coupled model,36 species and 83 reactions about NMHCs are added.By using this model,the budgets of ozone,carbon monoxide and methane in the troposphere are analyzed.The results show that the amount of ozone transported from the stratosphere to the troposphere is about 1340 Tg/a,its producing rate in troposphere is about 1190 Tg/a and the amount of ozone cleared by the dry deposition in troposphere is 1700Tg/a.In troposphere,the ozone is mainly produced at lower level in middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere and at upper levels in tropics.     

A GLOBAL COUPLED OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE MODEL OF SHALLOW WATER WAVE AND ITS NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS

A global coupled air-sea model of shallow water wave is developed based on coupled ocean-atmospheredynamics.The coupling is realized through the air-sea interaction process that the atmosphere acts on theocean by wind stress and the ocean acts on the atmosphere with heating proportional to sea surface temperature(SST)anomaly.The equation is harotropic primitive one.Response experiments of coupling system arealso carried out SSTA in two categories of intensities.Compared with the results of AGCM simulation ex-periment in which only the dynamic change of air system is considered,it demonstrates that the air-seainteraction between the tropical ocean and the global atmosphere plays a very important role in the evolutionof climate system.The results of numerical simulation show that it is encouraging.     

THE MONTHLY PREDICTION EXPERIMENTS USING A COUPLED ANALOGY-DYNAMICAL MODEL

Considering from point of view of the dynamics,it is convenient to regard the field to be predictedas a small disturbance superposed on the historical analogous field,and thus the statistical technique can beused in combining with the dynamics.Along this line,a coupled atmosphere-earth surface analogy-dynamicalmodel is formulated and applied to making monthly prediction.This approach facilitated the utility of the useful information contained in both the historical data setand the initial field to improve the dynamic model based solo on the latter and show better skill in prediction.     

THE MEANDER OF KUROSHIO AND OSCILLATION IN A COUPLED OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE MODEL

A numerical experiment of an asynchronous coupled ocean-atmosphere model has been described in this paper.Atwo-layer global atmosphere general circulation model(OSU/IAP-AGCM)and a two-layer North Pacific Oceangeneral circulation model(NPOGCM)developed by Liu et al.(1992)are used in numerical experiment.The sea surfacetemperature anomaly(SSTA)corresponding to the meander of the Kuroshio is treated as the initial perturbation in thePacific Ocean and the abnormal phenomena caused by the disturbance and the interaction between atmosphere andocean,have been studied.The numerical experiment showed that the SST anomaly in the North Pacific could induce a new 30—60 dayoscillation through the coupling between atmosphere and ocean and the interaction between the meander of theKuroshio and atmosphere circulation is a positive feedback process.     

THE SENSITIVITY OF THE NUMERICAL SIMULATION TO OROGRAPHY SPECIFICATION IN THE LOWRESOLUTION SPECTRAL MODEL－PART II: IMPACT OF THE SMOOTHED OROGRAPHY AND RIPPLES ON SIMULATIONS

In order to investigate the impact of the smoothed orography and the spurious orographic ripples on simu-lations in the low-resolution spectral model, three different numerical tests, that is, the unsmoothed orography scheme, the smoothed orography scheme and non-ripples scheme are performed. In this paper, the model used by us is the same as Part I except for orographic specification.The results from simulations indicate that, as far as the climatic simulation is concerned, some aspects of the simulated stationary disturbances, zonal and meridional wind, temperature and precipitation in the low-resolu-tion spectral model with properly smoothed mountains are significantly improved, especially in winter hemis-phere.The deep ripples in the model with the unsmoothed orography produce spurious high pressure regions at the surface with subsidence, and suppress rainfall, causing an unrealistic splitting of the precipitation area in northern winter and summer. Removal of tbe deep ripples by using the special procedure for smoothing topog-raphy allows a strong upward motion in the ripple area with heavy rainfall, eliminating the unrelistic split in the precipitation area.     

ON THE SENSITIVITY OF PRECIPITATION FORECASTS TO THE MOIST PHYSICS AND THE HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION OF NUMERICAL MODEL

The impacts of the enhanced model's moist physics and horizontal resolution upon the QPFs(quantitative precipitation forecasts)are investigated by applying the HIRLAM(high resolutionlimited area model)to the summer heavy-rain cases in China.The performance of the control run,for which a 0.5°×0.5°grid spacing and a traditional“grid-box supersaturation removal+Kuo typeconvective paramerization”are used as the moist physics,is compared with that of the sensitivityruns with an enhanced model's moist physics(Sundqvist scheme)and an increased horizontalresolution(0.25°×0.25°),respectively.The results show:(1)The enhanced moist physics scheme(Sundqvist scheme),by introducing the cloud watercontent as an additional prognostic variable and taking into account briefly of the microphysicsinvolved in the cloud-rain conversion,does bring improvements in the model's QPFs.Althoughthe deteriorated QPFs also occur occasionally,the improvements are found in the majority of thecases,indicating the great potential for the improvement of QPFs by enhancing the model's moistphysics.(2)By increasing the model's horizontal resolution from 0.5°×0.5°,which is already quitehigh compared with that of the conventional atmospheric soundings,to 0.25°×0.25°without thesimultaneous enhancement in model physics and objective analysis,the improvements in QPFs arevery limited.With higher resolution,although slight amelioration in locating the rainfall centersand in resolving some finer structures of precipitation pattern are made,the number of the mis-predicted fine structures in rainfall field increases with the enhanced model resolution as well.     

NUMERICAL MODELING OF CUMULUS CLOUD CHEMISTRY—PART Ⅰ.MODEL DEVELOPMENT

A one-dimensional cumulus cloud chemistry model(1CCCM)is developed to simulate cloudphysical processes and chemical processes during the evolution of a convective cloud.The cloudphysical submodel includes a detailed microphysical parameterized scheme of 20 processes.Thechemistry submodel is composed of three parts:gas phase chemistry,aqueous phase chemistry andscavenging of soluble gases.The gas phase reaction mechanism contains 85 reactions among 45species including 13 organics.The aqueous phase reaction mechanism contains 54 reactions among40 species and 12 ion equilibria.Mass of 19 gases is transported between the gas phase and theaqueous phase.With this model,studies may be made to analyze the interactions among processesduring lifetime of a cumulus cloud.     

THE THREE-LEVEL GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC GENERAL CIRCULATION MODEL:FORMULATION AND RESULTS

The“climate draft”often occurs in the coupling process of the atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) andoceanic general circulation model (OGCM).One of the main methods to overcome the“climate draft”is to simulate theflow and temperature fields in the low-layer correctly.Therefore we designed a three-level AGCM including a planeta-ry boundary layer (PBL) and have run it seven model years to do climate simulation.The results show that the simulatedlower level air flow,surface air temperature and sea-level pressure in January and July,approximate to the climate av-erage fields,especially in Asian monsoon area.The simulated upper level flow and geopotential height are also in betteragreement with the observed fields.Moreover,the two westerly jets over the northern and southern sides of theQinghai-Xizang Plateau in winter,the disappearance of its southern subtropical jet during the seasonal transition fromspring to summer,the establishment of the two easterly jets near the equator and over the subtropical region during theseasonal transition,are also simulated well.In the mainland of China,the seasonal abrupt shift of the rainfall belt,suchas the Meiyu belt in South China during April to May,which jumps to the Changjiang River region in June,again jumpsback to the north China in July,and rapidly withdraws to the south in August,are simulated very well.Now we arecoupling this model to a global six-level OGCM and nesting a fine mesh (1°×1.25°)regional climate model over Chinaarea with it.     

THE SENSITIVITY TEST STUDY OF AIR-SEA SURFACE FLUX MODEL

In this article, a sensitivity test of air-sea surface flux model was carried out with the field observation data of Project “South China Sea Air-Sea Flux Measurement in 2000”. The results show that sensible heat fluxes are sensitive to observation errors, increasing the error of model calculation; In contrast, the latent heat flux and momentum flux are not as sensitive to observation errors as the sensible heat, and their calculated results are reliable. The test result also verifies…     

NUMERICAL SIMULATION STUDY OF HAIL CLOUD—PART Ⅰ:THE NUMERICAL MODEL

In order to study mechanisms of hailstone formation and hail suppression with seeding and toobtain optimum seeding technique for hail cloud,a 3-D compressive numerical seeding model forhail cloud is developed.The water substance in hail cloud is divided into 8 categories,i.e.,watervapor,cloud droplet,raindrop,ice crystal,snow.graupel,frozen drop and hail,and the detailedmicrophysical processes are described in a spectrum with two variable parameters and morereasonable particle number/size distributions.Then,the model is able to predict concentration andwater content of various particles.Especially.it can calculate the number of hailstones whosecores are graupel or frozen drop and apply to study mechanism of hailstone formation.Additionally,a conservative equation of AgI as seeding or glacigenous agent is found andnucleation by condensation of artificial nucleus,and nucleation by freezing of cloud droplet or raindrop which contact with AgI particle are considered.The dynamic energy flux of hail shooting onground is used to verify seeding effect.Therefore the model is also used to study mechanism of hailsuppression with seeding and the seeding technique,     

NUMERICAL STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE ON TROPICAL CYCLONE INTENSITY—PART Ⅱ:COUPLING MODEL AND EXPERIMENT

A tropical cyclone-marine mixed layer model including air-sea interaction is established to conductnumerical experiment with the effects of SST on the cyclone's intensity,Evidence suggests that withair-sea interaction involved,SST rise causes a drop of central pressure of the storm and SST impact onthe intensity is weaker in the coupling case.Moreover,study is undertaken of the intensity variationof another tropical cyclone moving in the cyclone's cold-tail sector,with the results in good agreementwith the observational fact.     

THE SENSITIVITY OF NUMERICAL SIMULATION TO OROGRAPHY SPECIFICATION IN THE LOW RESOLUTION SPECTRAL MODEL－PART I: THE EFFECTS OF OROGRAPHY ON THE ATMOSPHERIC GENERAL CIRCULATION

In order to identify the sensitivity of the numerical simulation to the orography specification in a low resolution spectral model, two sets of numerical experiments for full-mountain and no-mountain cases are performed. By comparing the results, it is possible to determine the eflects of mountains on the atmospheric general circulation.This is a global, spectral model incorporating the primitive equations sugmented by physical parameterization and mountains, with five equally-spaced sigma levels in the vertical ang a triangular truncation at wavenum-ber 10 in the horizontal.Analysis of results supports earlier work by demonstrating that the low resolution global spectral model is capable of simulating the major features of global general circulation and indicates that it is necessary to consider the effects of mountains on stationary disturbances in the numerical simulation. The simulations show that topography plays an important role in intensifying heat sources for maintenance of disturbances.All the     

DEVELOPMENT OF A COUPLED REGIONAL AIR-SEA MODEL AND ITS NUMERICAL SIMULATION FOR SUMMER MONSOON IN 1998

A coupled regional air-sea model is developed by using the regional climate model (P-σ RCM)and the regional ocean model (POM),which is used to simulate East Asian monsoon and oceanicelements in East Asian coastal waters.The simulated surface layer oceanic elements are basicallyconsistent with the reality and can reflect the interaction between the monsoon and the surfacelayer currents.The great difference with the reality is “cold drift” of the simulated surfacetemperature.The coupled model has certain ability to simulate the atmosphere geopotential heightfields,precipitation and low-level southwest wind from May to August in 1998.It can display theprocess of summer monsoon onset during the third dekad of May and the evolution features afterthe onset.The differences between the simulation results of the coupled model and that of thesingle P-a RCM are shown mainly in the low-level atmosphere and the model internal regions.     

A MODEL FOR QUANTITATIVELY ESTIMATING SHORT-RANGE PRECIPITATION BASED ON GMS DIGITALIZED CLOUD MAPS—PART Ⅱ:ASSESSMENT OF RESULTS FROM THE MODEL FOR SATELLITE-IMAGE QUANTITATIVELY ESTIMATING PRECIPITATION

This is Part Ⅱ of this series.It introduces the technique for recognizing MαCS phased properties and its precipitation center or centers by means of dynamic digitalized cloud maps and presents the assessment of the effectiveness of the model proposed in Part Ⅰ as to its fitting and forecasting accuracy.     

THEORETICAL CALCULATION MODEL OF SHORTWAVE RADIATION FOR THE EARTH-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM AND ITS TESTING RESULTS

On the basis of radiation transfer theory,adopting improved two-stream algorithm incorporated with addingalgorithm,we build up a theoretical calculation model of shortwave radiation for the earth-atmosphere system whichcan be applied with satellite data.The model can calculate direct solar radiation,scattering solar radiation,heating rateand other physical quantities of radiation field at every layer of the atmosphere and on the earth's surface,if the under-ground reflectance or the planetary albedo obtained from satellite can be known.The model can be used in clear orcloudy atmosphere,and its calculating speed is fairly fast.We think that the model can be incorporated into large-scaleand mesoscale climatic models for the consideration of radiation calculation,and also it is useful for the utilization of so-lar energy.     

THE HEATING FIELD IN AN ASYMMETRIC HURRICANE PART II:RESULTS OF COMPUTATIONS

This is the second part of a paper on the distribution of heating fields in a hurricane. The first part dealt with the mathematical framework. The second part, i. e. the present paper deals with numerical calculations for an actual hurricane.The following sequence of calculations has been performed after the analysis and tabulation of an initial field of the tangential velocity V (r, θ, p): (1) the radial equation of motion is used to determine the geopotential heights; (2) the hydrostatic equation is used to determine the temperature field; (3) the tangential equation and the mass continuity equation are combined to obtain an omega equation whose solution determines the vertical velocity; (4) the radial velocity is next determined from the mass continuity equation; and (5) the heating function is finally determined from the first law of thermodynamics.The results of this study show an asymmetric banded structure (eye wall and rainband) of the vertical motion field as well as the heating field; these s     

NUMERICA STUDY OF THUNDERSTORM ELECTRIFICATION WITH A THREE-DIMENSIONAL DYNAMICS AND ELECTRIFICATION COUPLED MODEL—MODEL DESCRIPTION AND PARAMETERIZATION OF ELECTRICAL PROCESSES

A new three-dimensional dynamics and electrification coupled model has been developed forinvestigating the characteristics of microphysics,dynamics and electrification insidethunderstorms.This model is basically modified from a three-dimensional,time-dependent,anddual-parameter cloud model originally established in IAP(Institute of Atmospheric Physics)and atwo-dimensional axisymmetric cloud dynamics and electrification coupled model.Primarymodifications to the model include not only the coupling of electrification with dynamical andmicrophysical processes,but also the lightning discharge process and screening layer effect at thecloud top as well.Apart from including a full treatment of small ions with attachment to sixclasses of hydrometeors,the inductive and non-inductive charging mechanisms are more specificallyconsidered.A case simulation of July 19.1981 CCOPE is performed aiming to validate thepotential capability of the model.Comparison between model results and observations reveals thatthe model has the capacity to reproduce many of the observed characteristics of thunderstorms indynamical,microphysical,and electrical aspects.