Small‐scale faulting,topographic steps and seismic ruptures in the Alhambra (Granada,southeast Spain

The Alhambra (14th century AD ) in Granada (southeast Spain) is built at the summit of a Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene conglomeratic formation. Tens of small‐scale normal faults crop out along the northern hillslope of the Alhambra, which have a N130–N150°E strike, dipping 65–75° mostly to the southwest. These are closely spaced faults (approximately 5–30 m) with centimetre to several metre displacements. Several topographic steps in this area coincide with hectometre‐ to kilometre‐scale faults with the same kinematics as the small‐scale ones. Some of these faults appear to be active and related to the present seismicity detected in this region, and associated with the cracks and other damage observed in the Alhambra. Several focal mechanisms calculated in this study are in accordance with the dominant NW–SE orientated normal faults. We interpret that the topographic steps of these faults are a consequence of repeated earthquakes during the past 800 ka. The last large earthquake of approximately 5.1 magnitude in this area occurred in 1431, destroying the Alixares Palace, the Arabian fence and part of the Alhambra wall. We consider the seismic risk associated with these faults to be moderate, as the displacement is partitioned into several hectometre‐ to kilometre‐scale faults. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rare earth elements record past earthquakes on exhumed limestone fault planes

Evaluating the timing and size of past earthquakes is a constant challenge in palaeoseismology. Here, we show that rare earth element (REE) concentrations can be used to constrain the number and slips of major past earthquakes. We focus on one of the rare faults worldwide – the Magnola normal fault, Italy – whose Holocene earthquake history is precisely known. We analysed 42 samples from along the 10 m that form the surface of the well‐preserved seismically exhumed fault scarp and seven samples extracted from the fault plane section buried in the ground. We show that the first metre of soil contaminates the scarp rocks, producing a marked concentration ‘peak’ in REE. Similar peaks are recognized on the exhumed scarp, at positions that coincide with the transitions between the known past ruptures. We conclude that the REE peaks locate palaeo‐ground levels and are excellent markers for the large earthquakes that exhumed the scarp. Terra Nova, 00, 000–000, 2010     

中国东北地区地震空间分布与主要断裂带、深部构造及应力场关系

中国东北地区在北东东向应力场控制下, 地震有其特殊性。地震空间分布和深度统计结果表明, 东北地区地震主要受岩石圈断裂(开原-赤峰断裂带) 控制, 以44°N为界, 南北具有明显差异。北部地震发生的数量少于南部, 震源深度主要集中在4～6 km和8～12 km两个深度范围内; 而南部主要集中在8～12 km和28～30 km两个深度范围内。发震深度分析显示, 开原-赤峰、郯庐断裂带、大兴安岭断裂带下可能存在地温较低的区域, 使地震可以在深部孕育。地震分布的Vp和Vs剖面资料的研究暗示, 断裂与速度变化带、断裂与断裂的相交区域是地震易发生区域。     

基于低空遥感地貌观测的逆断层陡坎研究:以张流沟滩断层陡坎为例

活动断层相关地貌特征的定量研究是揭示古地震和断裂属性的重要依据,其中陡坎地貌是断裂活动的重要地貌响应,是有效识别活动断裂的重要地貌标志。近年来,无人机低空遥感观测技术的不断进步,使得高分辨率地貌数据的快速获取成为现实。本研究利用无人机低空遥感地貌观测技术,对张流沟滩处的断层陡坎附近进行高分辨率数字地形数据的采集。断层陡坎位于张流沟滩河流Ⅱ级阶地上,影像采集范围为800 m×400 m的矩形区域。经过一系列的影像处理,最终获取了目标区地面分辨率为0.1 m的DEM(数字高程模型)数据。基于该DEM数据可以提取到正交于断层陡坎的高程、坡度剖面。利用高程剖面所展示的地形地貌信息,可以提取到陡坎高度为(2.81±0.05) m;利用坡度剖面所展示的坡度曲线特征,可以推断该陡坎至少经历过两次断错活动事件,并且陡坎存在向上“凸起样式”。通过探槽解译,确定该陡坎下伏断裂至少发生过两次活动事件,其中较早的地震事件接近(3.68±0.14) ka B.P.,最晚期的地震活动应为1927年古浪8级地震,两次断裂活动累计垂直位移为(2.80±0.2) m。将以上两种研究方法相比较可以发现,探槽结构分析与低空遥感获取的定量化地貌信息分析结果基本一致,均能够有效揭示古地震期次及累计的同震位移量。最终本研究将探槽揭示的地层单元的沉积、构造信息与陡坎坡度数据特征相结合,提出了基于断层传播褶皱模型的“陡坎凸起”地貌响应样式来解释陡坎存在的向上“凸起样式”。实践证明,利用无人机低空遥感地貌观测技术能够定量、半定量化揭示下伏断裂的活动信息,结合传统断裂研究手段,可以更全面解释活动断层的沉积、构造特征及地形、地貌现象。总的来说,无人机低空遥感地貌观测技术的应用可作为传统古地震研究的辅助手段,并有其独特的方法优势。     

Landslide triggers along volcanic rock slopes in eastern Sicily (Italy)

A new dataset of landslides, occurred in a tectonically active region, has been analysed in order to understand the causes of the slope instability. The landslides we have dealt with took place along the volcanic rock cliff of S. Caterina and S. Maria La Scala villages (eastern Sicily, Italy), a densely inhabited area located on the eastern margin of Mt. Etna, where some seismogenic faults, locally named Timpe system, slip during moderate local earthquakes and also move with aseismic creep mechanisms. The results show that landslides are triggered by heavy rainfalls, earthquakes and creep fault episodes. Indeed, they occur along discrete fault segments, exhibiting a combination of both brittle failure, indicated by the earthquake occurrence, and aseismic creep events. The analysis of seismicity occurred on the Timpe fault system has shown that the active Acireale fault, in its southernmost segment, is subject to an aseismic sliding, which increases after the stick–slip motion in the nearby faults. Therefore, aseismic creep seems to concur in the predisposition of a rock to fail, since strains can increase the jointing of rock masses leading to a modification in the slope stability. Understanding the factors concurring to the slope instability is a useful tool for future assessments of the landslide hazard in densely settled areas, located on a volcanic edifice, such as Etna that is slowly sliding seawards, and where active faults, seismicity and heavy rains affect the deeply fractured slopes.     

Thessaloniki–Gerakarou Fault Zone (TGFZ): the western extension of the 1978 Thessaloniki earthquake fault (Northern Greece) and seismic hazard assessment

Active faulting and seismic properties are re-investigated in the eastern precinct of the city of Thessaloniki (Northern Greece), which was seriously affected by two large earthquakes during the 20th century and severe damage was done by the 1759 event. It is suggested that the earthquake fault associated with the occurrence of the latest destructive 1978 Thessaloniki earthquake continues westwards to the 20-km-long Thessaloniki–Gerakarou Fault Zone (TGFZ), which extends from the Gerakarou village to the city of Thessaloniki. This fault zone exhibits a constant dip to the N and is characterised by a complicated geometry comprised of inherited 100°-trending faults that form multi-level branching (tree-like fault geometry) along with NNE- to NE-trending faults. The TGFZ is compatible with the contemporary regional N–S extensional stress field that tends to modify the pre-existing NW–SE tectonic fabric prevailing in the mountainous region of Thessaloniki. Both the 1978 earthquake fault and TGFZ belong to a ca. 65-km-long E–W-trending rupture fault system that runs through the southern part of the Mygdonia graben from the Strymonikos gulf to Thessaloniki. This fault system, here called Thessaloniki–Rentina Fault System (TRFS), consists of two 17–20-km-long left-stepping 100°-trending main fault strands that form underlapping steps bridged by 8–10-km-long ENE–WSW faults. The occurrence of large (M6.0) historical earthquakes (in 620, 677 and 700 A.D.) demonstrates repeated activation, and therefore the possible reactivation of the westernmost segment, the TGFZ, could be a major threat to the city of Thessaloniki. Changes in the Coulomb failure function (ΔCFF) due to the occurrence of the 1978 earthquake calculated out in this paper indicate that the TGFZ has been brought closer to failure, a convincing argument for future seismic hazard along the TGFZ.     

Interpretation of radon anomalies in seismotectonic and tectonic-gravitational settings: the south-eastern Crati graben (Northern Calabria, Italy)

The study area is located in the south-eastern part of the Crati valley (Northern Calabria, Italy), which is a graben bordered by N–S trending normal faults and crossed by NW–SE normal left-lateral faults. Numerous severe crustal earthquakes have affected the area in historical time. Present-day seismic activity is mainly related to the N–S faults located along the eastern border of the graben. In this area, much seismically induced deep-seated deformation has also been recognised.In the present paper, radon concentrations in soil gas have been measured and compared with (a) lithology, (b) Quaternary faults, (c) historical and instrumental seismicity, and (d) deep-seated deformation.The results highlight the following:

(a) There is no evidence of a strong correlation between lithology and the radon anomalies.

(b) A clear correlation between the N–S geometry of radon anomalies and the orientation of main fault systems has been recognised, except in the southernmost part of the area, where the radon concentrations are strongly affected by the superposition of the N–S and the NW–SE fault systems.

(c) Epicentral zones of instrumental and historical earthquakes correspond to the highest values of radon concentrations, probably indicating recent activated fault segments. In particular, high radon values occur in the zones struck by earthquakes in 1835, 1854, and 1870.

(d) Deep-seated gravitational deformation generally coincides with zones characterised by low radon concentrations.

In the studied area, the anisotropic distribution of radon concentrations is congruent with the presence of neotectonic features and deep-seated gravitational phenomena. The method used in this study could profitably contribute towards either seismic risk or deep-seated gravitational deformation analyses.     

Late Holocene earthquakes in southern Apennine: paleoseismology of the Caggiano fault

Although southern Apennines are characterized by the strongest crustal earthquakes of central-western Mediterranean region, local active tectonics is still poorly known, at least for seismogenic fault-recognition is concerned. Research carried out in the Maddalena Mts. (southeast of Irpinia, the region struck by the M _w=6.9, 1980 earthquake) indicates historical ruptures along a 17-km-long, N120° normal fault system (Caggiano fault). The system is characterized by a bedrock fault scarp carved in carbonate rocks, which continues laterally into a retreating and eroded smoothed scarp, affecting the clayey-siliciclastic units, and by smart scarps and discontinuous free-faces in Holocene cemented slope-debris and in modern alluvial fan deposits. The geometry of the structure in depth has been depicted by means of electrical resistivity tomography, while paleoseismic analysis carried out in three trenches revealed surface-faulting events during the past 7 ky BP (¹⁴C age), the latest occurred in the past 2 ky BP (¹⁴C age) and, probably, during/after slope-debris deposition related to the little ice age (∼1400–1800 a.d.). Preliminary evaluation accounts for minimum slip rates of 0.3–0.4 mm/year, which is the same order of rates estimated for many active faults along the Apennine chain. Associated earthquakes might be in the order of M _w=6.6, to be compared to the historical events occurred in the area (e.g., 1561 and 1857 p.p. earthquakes).     

Holocene displacement along branch and secondary faults in the San Andreas fault zone, southern California

Detailed geologic mapping of the San Andreas fault zone in Los Angeles County since 1972 has revealed evidence for diverse histories of displacement on branch and secondary faults near Palmdale. The main trace of the San Andreas fault is well defined by a variety of physiographic features. The geologic record supports the concept of many kilometers of lateral displacement on the main trace and on some secondary faults, especially when dealing with pre-Quaternary rocks. However, the distribution of upper Pleistocene rocks along branch and secondary faults suggests a strong vertical component of displacement and, in many locations, Holocene displacement appears to be primarily vertical. The most recent movement on many secondary and some branch faults has been either high-angle (reverse and normal) or thrust. This is in contrast to the abundant evidence for lateral movement seen along the main San Andreas fault. We suggest that this change in the sense of displacement is more common than has been previously recognized.The branch and secondary faults described here have geomorphic features along them that are as fresh as similar features visible along the most recent trace of the San Andreas fault. From this we infer that surface rupture occurred on these faults in 1857, as it did on the main San Andreas fault. Branch faults commonly form “Riedel” and “thrust” shear configurations adjacent to the main San Andreas fault and affect a zone less than a few hundred meters wide. Holocene and upper Pleistocene deposits have been repeatedly offset along faults that also separate contrasting older rocks. Secondary faults are located up to 1500 m on either side of the San Andreas fault and trend subparallel to it. Moreover, our mapping indicates that some portions of these secondary faults appear to have been “inactive” throughout much of Quaternary time, even though Holocene and upper Pleistocene deposits have been repeatedly offset along other parts of these same faults. For example, near 37th Street E. and Barrel Springs Road, a limited stretch of the Nadeau fault has a very fresh normal scarp, in one place as much as 3 m high, which breaks upper Pleistocene or Holocene deposits. This scarp has two bevelled surfaces, the upper surface sloping significantly less than the lower, suggesting at least two periods of recent movement. Other exposures along this fault show undisturbed Quaternary deposits overlying the fault. The Cemetery and Little Rock faults also exhibit selected reactivation of isolated segments separated by “inactive” stretches.Activity on branch and secondary faults, as outlined above, is presumed to be the result of sympathetic movement on limited segments of older faults in response to major movement on the San Andreas fault. The recognition that Holocene activity is possible on faults where much of the evidence suggests prolonged inactivity emphasizes the need for regional, as well as detailed site studies to evaluate adequately the hazard of any fault trace in a major fault zone. Similar problems may be encountered when geodetic or other studies, Which depend on stable sites, are conducted in the vicinity of major faults.     

Seismotectonics and seismicity of the Silakhor region, Iran

This paper deals with seismotectonic and seismicity of the Silakhor region that shows high seismic activity in western Iran. Silakhor is a vast plain with several villages and cities of Dorud and Borujerd and a small town of Chalanchulan that were destroyed and/or damaged many times by large earthquakes. This paper addresses the historical and instrumental earthquakes and their causative faults, seismotectonic provinces and seismotectonic zones of the region. Available seismic data were normalized by means of time normalization technique that resulted in the magnitude-frequency relation for the Silakhor area and estimation of the return period of earthquakes with different magnitudes. Some active faults in this region include the Dorud fault, the main Zagros thrust, the Galehhatam fault, the Sahneh fault and others. Among them, the Dorud fault is an earthquake fault and is the cause for most of the large and intermediate earthquakes in the region. The return period of large earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 7.0 (Ms) is very low, however, the occurrence of destructive earthquakes is greater in the region than in the neighboring provinces. The study proves the high seismicity of this zone and it is required to develop an accurate national plan for future building and reinforcement of the existing buildings in this region.     

Unknown large ancient earthquakes along the Kurai fault zone (Gorny Altai): new results of palaeoseismological and archaeoseismological studies

Palaeoseismological and archaeoseismological studies in the Kurai fault zone, along which the Kurai Range is thrust onto Cenozoic deposits of the Chuya intramontane basin, led to the identification of a long reverse fault scarp 8.0 m high. The scarp segments are primary seismic deformations of large ancient earthquakes. The scarp’s morphology, results of trenching investigations, and deformations of Neogene deposits indicate a thrusting of the piedmont plain onto the Kurai Range, which is unique for the Gorny Altai. Similarly for Northern Tien Shan, we explain this by the formation of both a thrust transporting the mountain range onto the depression and a branching thrust dislocation that forms the detected fault scarp. In a trench made in one of the scarp segments, we identified the parameters of the seismogenic fault – a thrust with a 30° dipping plane. The reconstructed displacement along the fault plane is 4.8 m and the vertical displacement is 2.4 m, which indicates a 7.2–7.6 magnitude of the ancient earthquake. The ¹⁴C age of the humus-rich loamy sand from the lower part of the colluvial wedge constrains the age of the earthquake at 3403–3059 years BP. Younger than 2500 years seismogenic displacements along the fault scarp are indicated by deformations of cairn structures of the Turalu–Dzhyurt-III burial mound, which was previously dated as iron age between the second half of I BC and I AD.     

Paleoseismic records of large earthquakes on the cross-basin fault in the Ganyanchi pull-apart basin,Haiyuan fault,northeastern Tibetan Plateau

Field observations and analog models show that cross-basin faults play a key role in the evolution of pull-apart basins and dominate the distribution of earthquake rupture in basin areas. We studied the long-term history of large earthquakes on a cross-basin fault to reveal its behavior in response to propagating earthquake rupture and gain insight into the evolution of the pull-apart basin. A number of pull-apart basins have developed along the Haiyuan fault in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, the largest being the Ganyanchi pull-apart basin. The surface rupture associated with the 1920 M 8.5 earthquake shows that a cross-basin fault developed in the basin and that the basin is now going through the late stage of its evolution. We excavated two trenches and drilled four cores across the cross-basin fault in the basin and found abundant evidence of paleoseismic events. Seven events were identified and ¹⁴C-dated. The two youngest events are associated with the historical records of 1092 AD and 1920 AD, respectively. The paleoseismic sequence shows the recurrence of earthquakes characterized by earthquake clusters alternating with a single event. Comparing these with previous paleoseismic results, all the major earthquake events seem to be associated with cascade events that ruptured multi-fault segments, suggesting that only an earthquake of this scale (likely M > 8) can produce obvious surface rupture along the cross-basin fault. We propose that the fault has a long tectonic history, with a series of cascade rupture events that could play an important part in the evolution of the pull-apart basin.     

The 1988 Tennant Creek,northern territory,earthquakes: A synthesis

Three large earthquakes with surface‐wave magnitudes 6.3–6.7 on 22 January 1988 were associated with 32 km of surface faulting on two main scarps 30 km southwest of Tennant Creek in the Northern Territory. These events provide an excellent opportunity to study the mechanics of midplate earthquakes because of the abundance of geological and geophysical data in the area, the proximity of the Warramunga seismic array and the ease of access to the fault zone. The 1988 earthquakes were located in the North Australian Craton in an area that had no history of moderate or large earthquakes before 1986. Additionally, no smaller earthquakes from the fault zone were identified at the Warramunga array, which is situated only 30 km from the nearest scarp, between the 1965 installation of the array and 1986. The main shocks were preceded by a swarm of moderatesized (magnitude 4–5) earthquakes in January 1987 and many smaller aftershocks throughout 1987. Careful relocation of all teleseismically recorded earthquakes from the fault zone shows that the 1987 activity was concentrated in an area only 6 km across in the gap between the two main fault scarps. The main shocks also nucleated in the centre of the fault zone near the 1987 activity. Field observations of scarp morphology indicate that the scarp is divided into three segments, each showing primarily reverse faulting. However, whereas the western and eastern segments show movement of the southern block over the northern, the central scarp segment shows the opposite, with the northern block thrust over the southern block.

Analysis of the first arrival times at Warramunga suggests that the three main shocks were associated with the western, central and eastern scarp segments, respectively. The locations of aftershocks determined using data from temporary seismograph arrays in the epicentral area define three inclined zones of activity that are interpreted as fault planes. In the western and eastern portions of the aftershock zone, these concentrations of activity dip to the south at 45° and 35°, respectively, but in the central section the aftershock zone dips to the north at 55°. Focal mechanisms derived from modelling broadband teleseismic data show thrust and oblique thrust faulting for the three main shocks. The first event ruptured unilaterally up and to the northwest on the westernmost fault segment, while the third main shock ruptured horizontally to the southeast. Modelling of repeat levelling data from the epicentral area requires at least three distinct fault planes, with the eastern and western planes dipping to the south and the central plane dipping to the north. The combination of scarp morphology, aftershock distribution and elevation data makes a strong case for rupture of fault planes in conjugate orientation during the 22 January 1988 Tennant Creek earthquakes. More than 20000 aftershocks have been recorded at Warramunga and activity continues to the present‐day with occasional shocks felt in the town of Tennant Creek and some recent off‐fault aftershocks located directly under the Warramunga seismic array. Stratigraphic relationships exposed in trenches excavated across the scarps suggest that during the Quaternary, a large earthquake ruptured the surface along one segment of the 1988 scarps.     

The geological background of the May 12, 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan catastrophic earthquake,Longmen Shan,Western China

The Longmen Shan fault zone is located at the particular boundary between the Triassic Songpan-Ganzi orogen of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and the stable Sichuan basin of the Yangtze platform. There are four major active faults and three tectonic nappes in this region. According to an analysis of neotectonics and historical earthquakes, the Longmen Shan fault zone presents a high level of seismic hazard. The rupture system that hosted the Wenchuan earthquake is characterized by thrust and dextral strike-slip movement.     

汶川8级大地震同震破裂的特殊性及构造意义——多条平行断裂同时活动的反序型逆冲地震事件

汶川地震是有仪器记录以来发生的世界上最大的板内逆冲型地震之一。野外调查表明,沿北东走向的龙门山断裂带上,至少有两条逆冲断裂同时参与汶川地震的同震破裂过程,即北川断裂和安县灌县断裂（彭灌断裂）。倾向北西的高角度北川逆冲断裂上的地表破裂长度大于200 km,可能达225 km。运动方式在南部表现为以北西盘抬升的逆冲为主,往北东转为逆冲右旋走滑,走滑分量与垂向陡坎高度相当,陡坎高度最大值约为11 m。在彭灌断裂上,地表破裂表现为北西盘抬升的近纯逆冲性质的破裂,破裂长度达70 km,陡坎最高达3~3.5 m。汶川地震是世界上第一次明确记录到多条平行断裂参与同震破裂的逆冲型地震,而且因发震断层是龙门山断裂带内部的高角度逆冲断裂,而非断裂带前锋的低角度逆冲断裂,所以汶川地震属于反序型逆冲断裂活动。这与1999年我国台湾7.5级集集地震和2005年克什米尔7.6级地震类似,说明反序型逆冲地震具有普遍性。汶川地震这一震级大、破裂长的逆冲地震事件是对目前流行的青藏高原下地壳流动的变形假说提出的严峻挑战,同时也表明加强青藏高原东缘南北地震带上其他滑动速率较低但同样具有发生大地震可能性的活动断裂的滑动速率和古地震定量研究的紧迫性,因为这一地区人口密度与东部相当,但发生强震的频率更高。     

泛长三角地区主要活动断裂及地震活动基本特征

在系统收集整理前人成果资料基础上,结合基础地质和遥感解译,对泛长三角地区的主要活动断裂及其活动性进行了全面梳理和分析,并根据区域主要断裂的活动性与历史地震活动特征,进一步分析指出了该区需要特别关注的潜在震源区和地壳稳定性相对较差的区域。研究结果表明,该区主要发育38条活动性相对显著的活动断裂带,并以北东和北西走向两组活动断裂为主,前者以右旋走滑活动为主,后者以左旋走滑活动为主;其次为近东西走向,活动性较弱。进一步结合历史地震活动信息分析发现,其中的北东/北北东向断裂是区域上主要的控震构造和发震断层,其次是北西向断裂,这两组不同走向断裂带的交汇部位常常是地震发生部位,其中最显著的控震断裂是北东向的郯庐断裂与北西向的无锡-宿迁断裂。      

Historical earthquake activity of the northern part of the Dead Sea Fault Zone, southern Turkey

The northern part of the Dead Sea Fault Zone is one of the major active neotectonic structures of Turkey. The main trace of the fault zone (called Hacıpaşa fault) is mapped in detail in Turkey on the basis of morphological and geological evidence such as offset creeks, fault surfaces, shutter ridges and linear escarpments. Three trenches were opened on the investigated part of the fault zone. Trench studies provided evidence for 3 historical earthquakes and comparing trench data with historical earthquake records showed that these earthquakes occurred in 859 AD, 1408 and 1872. Field evidence, palaeoseismological studies and historical earthquake records indicate that the Hacıpaşa fault takes the significant amount of slip in the northern part of the Dead Sea Fault Zone in Turkey. On the basis of palaeoseismological evidence, it is suggested that the recurrence interval for surface faulting event is 506 ± 42 years on the Hacıpaşa fault.     

2001年昆仑山口西8.1级地震地表破裂带

2001年11月14日昆仑山口西8.1级地震是近50年来在我国大陆发生的震级最大、地表破裂最长的地震事件.地震地表破裂带全长426km,宽数米至数百米,总体走向90°～110°,具有明显的破裂分段特征,自西向东由5条次级破裂段组成.各破裂段又由若干更次级左阶或右阶斜列的破裂组成,具有自相似的分形结构特征.地震破裂带以左旋走滑为主,倾滑量很小.宏观震中区位于库赛湖东北93.0°～93.5°E一带的昆仑山南麓断层谷地内.最大地表同震左旋水平位移6.4m,最大垂直位移为4m.地表水平位移沿地震破裂带走向出现6个峰值,各峰值之间存在相对独立的衰减序列,这表明此地震具有多点破裂特征.     

Recognition of earthquake-related damage in archaeological sites: Examples from the Dead Sea fault zone

Archaeological structures that exhibit seismogenic damage expand our knowledge of temporal and spatial distribution of earthquakes, afford independent examination of historical accounts, provide information on local earthquake intensities and enable the delineation of macroseismic zones. They also illustrate what might happen in future earthquakes. In order to recover this information, we should be able to distinguish earthquake damage from anthropogenic damage and from other natural processes of wear and tear. The present paper reviews several types of damage that can be attributed with high certainty to earthquakes and discusses associated caveats. In the rare cases, where faults intersect with archaeological sites, offset structures enable precise determination of sense and size of slip, and constrain its time. Among the characteristic off-fault damage types, I consider horizontal shifting of large building blocks, downward sliding of one or several blocks from masonry arches, collapse of heavy, stably-built walls, chipping of corners of building blocks, and aligned falling of walls and columns. Other damage features are less conclusive and require additional evidence, e.g., fractures that cut across several structures, leaning walls and columns, warps and bulges in walls. Circumstantial evidence for catastrophic earthquake-related destruction includes contemporaneous damage in many sites in the same area, absence of weapons or other anthropogenic damage, stratigraphic data on collapse of walls and ceilings onto floors and other living horizons and burial of valuable artifacts, as well as associated geological palaeoseismic phenomena such as liquefaction, land- and rock-slides, and fault ruptures. Additional support may be found in reliable historical accounts. Special care must be taken in order to avoid circular reasoning by maintaining the independence of data acquisition methods.     

吉林省前郭县哈拉毛都一带新构造运动

本文描述了哈拉毛都松花江两岸的地质地貌景观。松花江北岸直型谷坡,坡陡,高差近100 m,绵延数十公里,是典型的断层崖;南岸破碎的地形、阶梯状谷坡、冲沟、冲沟中的丹霞地形正在发生发展的地裂缝、断层和滑坡,这一切与松花江南岸不断隆起和松花江断裂继承性新构造运动有直接联系。