Significant Zn–Pb–Cu remobilization of a syngenetic stratabound deposit during regional metamorphism: A case study in the giant Dongshengmiao deposit,northern China

The giant Dongshengmiao Zn–Pb–Cu deposit is located in the Langshan district, northern China. The ores are hosted within a Proterozoic rift sequence, which underwent lower greenschist facies metamorphism and shear deformation during development of Early Cretaceous intraplate orogenic belt. Northwest-dipping thrust faults, which share similar orientations and dip angles with the orebodies, are well developed in the mining area. Syngenetic stratabound sulfides were formed during the Proterozoic rifting event, but syngenetic ore textures have seldom been preserved except for some pretectonic fine-grained pyrite. Petrological observation, ³⁹Ar/⁴⁰Ar geochronology, combined with previous isotopic and fluid inclusion studies indicates that significant Zn–Pb–Cu remobilization took place as a result of thrust faulting associated with metamorphic devolatilization of ore-hosting rocks at ca. 136 Ma, coeval with the intraplate orogeny and regional crustal shortening. Sulfides were redistributed in shear structures or along grain boundaries of ore-hosting carbonates, and Fe-rich carbonates were ideal sites for Zn–Pb–Cu precipitation.     

SHRIMP U–Pb zircon dating of the host rocks of the Cannington Ag–Pb–Zn deposit,southeastern Mt Isa Block,Australia

SHRIMP U–Pb zircon ages are reported from a paragneiss, a pegmatite, a metasomatised metasediment and an amphibolite taken from the upper amphibolite facies host sequence of the Cannington Ag–Pb–Zn deposit at the southeastern margin of the Proterozoic Mt Isa Block. Also reported are ages from a middle amphibolite‐facies metasediment from the Soldiers Cap Group approximately 90 km north of Cannington. The predominantly metasedimentary host rocks of the Cannington deposit were eroded from a terrane containing latest Archaean to earliest Palaeoproterozoic (ca 2600–2300 Ma) and Palaeoproterozoic (ca 1750–1700 Ma) zircon. The ca 1750–1700 Ma group of zircons are consistent with sedimentary provenance from rocks of Cover Sequence 2 age that are now exposed to the north and west of the Cannington deposit. The metasedimentary samples also include a group of zircon grains at ca 1675 Ma, which we interpret as the maximum depositional age of the sedimentary protolith. This is comparable to the maximum depositional age of the metasediment from the Maronan area (ca 1665 Ma) and to previously published data from the Soldiers Cap Group. Metamorphic zircon rims and new zircon grains grew at 1600–1580 Ma during upper amphibolite‐facies metamorphism in metasedimentary and mafic magmatic rocks. Zircon inheritance patterns suggest that sheet‐like pegmatitic intrusions were most likely derived from partial melting of the surrounding metasediments during this period of metamorphism. Some zircon grains from the amphibolite have a morphology consistent with partially recrystallised igneous grains and have apparent ages close to the metamorphic age, although it is not clear whether these represent metamorphic resetting or crystallisation of the magmatic protolith. Pb‐loss during syn‐ to post‐metamorphic metasomatism resulted in partial resetting of zircons from the metasomatised metasediment.     

The Transfiguration continental red-bed Cu–Pb–Zn–Ag deposit,Quebec Appalachians,Canada

The Transfiguration Cu–Pb–Zn–Ag deposit, enclosed within reduced grey sandstone, is associated with continental red beds of the Lower Silurian Robitaille Formation in the Quebec Appalachians, Canada. The Robitaille Formation rests unconformably on foliated Cambro-Ordovician rocks. The unconformity is locally cut by barite veins. The basal unit of the Robitaille Formation comprises green wacke and pebble conglomerate, which locally contain calcite nodules. The latter have microstructures characteristic of alpha-type calcretes, such as “floating” fabrics, calcite-filled fractures (crystallaria) and circumgranular cracks. Massive, grey sandstone overlies the basal green wacke and pebble conglomerate unit, which is overlain, in turn, by red, fine-grained sandstone. Mineralisation occurred underneath the red sandstone unit, chiefly in the grey sandstone unit, as disseminated and veinlet sulphides. Chalcopyrite, the most abundant Cu sulphide, replaced early pyrite. Calcrete, disseminated carbonate and vein carbonate have stable isotope ratios varying from −7.5‰ to −1.1‰ δ¹³C and from 14.7‰ to 21.3‰ δ¹⁸O. The negative δ¹³C values indicate the oxidation of organic matter in a continental environment. Sulphur isotope ratios for pyrite, chalcopyrite and galena vary from −19‰ to 25‰ δ³⁴S, as measured on mineral concentrates by a conventional SO₂ technique. Laser-assisted microanalyses (by fluorination) of S isotopes in pyrite show an analogous range in δ³⁴S values, from −21‰ to 25‰. Negative and positive δ³⁴S values are compatible with bacterial sulphate reduction (BSR) in systems open and closed with respect to sulphate. We interpret similarly high δ³⁴S values for sulphide concentrates (25.1‰) and for vein barite (26.2‰) to result from rapid and complete thermochemical reduction of pore-water sulphate. Two early to late diagenetic stages of mineralisation best explain the origin of the Transfiguration deposit. The first stage was characterised by the ponding of groundwater over the Taconian unconformity, recorded by calcrete and early pyrite formation via BSR in grey sandstone. Early pyrite contains up to 2 wt.% Pb, which is consistent with Pb fixation by sulphate-reducing bacteria. The second stage (II) is defined by the replacement of early pyrite by chalcopyrite, as well as by sulphide precipitation via either BSR or thermochemical sulphate reduction (TSR) in grey sandstone. This event resulted from the synsedimentary fault-controlled percolation and mixing of (1) an oxidising, sulphate-bearing cupriferous fluid migrating per descensum from the red-bed sequence and (2) a hydrocarbon-bearing fluid migrating per ascensum from the Cambro-Ordovician basement. Mixing between the two fluids led to sulphate reduction, causing Cu sulphide precipitation. The positive correlation between Cu and Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ bulk rock values suggests that Fe acted as a redox agent during sulphate reduction. Stage II diagenetic fluid migration is tentatively attributed to the Late Silurian Salinic extensional event.     

Pb isotopic constraints on the formation of the Dikulushi Cu–Pb–Zn–Ag mineralisation, Kundelungu Plateau (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Base metal–Ag mineralisation at Dikulushi and in other deposits on the Kundelungu Plateau (Democratic Republic of Congo) developed during two episodes. Subeconomic Cu–Pb–Zn–Fe polysulphide ores were generated during the Lufilian Orogeny (c. 520 Ma ago) in a set of E–W- and NE–SW-oriented faults. Their lead has a relatively unradiogenic and internally inhomogeneous isotopic composition (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.07–18.49), most likely generated by mixing of Pb from isotopically heterogeneous clastic sources. These sulphides were remobilised and enriched after the Lufilian Orogeny, along reactivated and newly formed NE–SW-oriented faults into a chalcocite-dominated Cu–Ag mineralisation of high economic interest. The chalcocite samples contain only trace amounts of lead and show mostly radiogenic Pb isotope signatures that fall along a linear trend in the ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb vs. ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb diagram (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.66–23.65; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.72–16.02). These anomalous characteristics reflect a two-stage evolution involving admixture of both radiogenic lead and uranium during a young fluid event possibly c. 100 Ma ago. The Pb isotope systematics of local host rocks to mineralisation also indicate some comparable young disturbance of their U–Th–Pb systems, related to the same event. They could have provided Pb with sufficiently radiogenic compositions that was added to less radiogenic Pb remobilised from precursor Cu–Pb–Zn–Fe polysulphides, whereas the U most likely originated from external sources. Local metal sources are also suggested by the ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb–²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb systematics of combined ore and rock lead, which indicate a pronounced and diversified lithological control of the immediate host rocks on the chalcocite-dominated Cu–Ag ores. The Pb isotope systematics of polysulphide mineralisation on the Kundelungu Plateau clearly record a diachronous evolution.     

S,O and Pb isotopic evidence on the origin of the İnkaya (Simav-Kütahya) Cu–Pb–Zn–(Ag) Prospect,NW Turkey

The İnkaya Cu–Pb–Zn–(Ag) prospect is a typical example of the hydrothermal mineralization occurring in the Menderes Massif, which crop out in Western Anatolia. The prospect located approximately 20 km west of Simav (Kütahya-Turkey) in northern part of the Menderes Massif have been characterized through the detailed examinations involving geological, mineralogical, whole-rock geochemistry, fluid inclusion, stable isotope and lead isotope.The İnkaya Cu–Pb–Zn–(Ag) prospect is located along an E–W-trending fault in the Cambrian Simav Metamorphics, which consist of quartz–muscovite schist, quartz–biotite schist, muscovite schist, biotite schist and the Arıkayası Formation, which is composed of marbles. Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and fahlore are the main minerals, and they are accompanied by small amounts of cerussite, anglesite, digenite, enargite, chalcocite, covellite, bornite, and Fe-oxides with gangue quartz. In addition to Pb, Zn, Cu, Ag, the ore samples contain substantial quantities of As, Cd and Bi and small amount of Au. Average contents of Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag are 77,400 ppm, 102,600 ppm, 6843 ppm and 203 ppm, respectively.The δ³⁴S values for galena, chalcopyrite and pyrite formed in the same stage vary in the range from − 1.7 to − 2.1‰ (average − 2.0), 0.1 to 0.3‰ (average 0.2) and − 1.5 to 2.6‰ (average + 1.5), respectively.δ³⁴S values for H₂S, representing the composition of the fluids responsible for the sulfide mineral formations and calculated from the δ³⁴S value are between − 2.77 and 1.33‰; it is consistent with the sulfur in sulfide minerals. δ¹⁸O_quartz values range from 11.3 to 16.4‰ and estimated δ¹⁸O_fluid values range from 5.4 to 10.6‰.Pyrite–galena and pyrite–chalcopyrite pairs calculated to determine equilibrium isotope temperatures based on δ³⁴S values are between 254.6 and 277.4 °C for pyrite–galena and 274.7 °C for pyrite–chalcopyrite. Sulfur and oxygen isotope values similar to the values for fluid equilibrated with an felsic magmatic source.Fluid inclusion studies on quartz of the same silicification stage coexisting with galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite collected from the mineralized vein indicate that the temperature range of the fluids is 235 °C to 340 °C and that the salinities are 0.7 to 4.49 wt.% NaCl equivalent. The wide range of homogenization temperatures and relatively lower salinities of the fluid inclusions indicate that at least two different fluid generations were trapped in the quartz from only one fluid type. Also, lower salinities of fluid inclusion probably indicate mixing of meteoric water and magmatic fluid.The galena has ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb values of 18.862–18.865, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb values of 15.707–15.711, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb values of 39.033–39.042. The lead isotope values show a similarity with upper crustal values.     

Some new data on the genesis of the Linghou Cu–Pb–Zn polymetallic deposit—Based on the study of fluid inclusions and C–H–O–S–Pb isotopes

The Linghou deposit, located near Hangzhou City of Zhejiang Province, eastern China, is a medium-sized polymetallic sulfide deposit associated with granitic intrusion. This deposit is structurally and lithologically controlled and commonly characterized by ore veins or irregular ore lenses. In this deposit, two mineralization events were identified, of which the former produced the Cu–Au–Ag orebodies, while the latter formed Pb–Zn–Cu orebodies. Silicification and calc-silicate (skarn type), phyllic, and carbonate alternation are four principal types of hydrothermal alteration. The early Cu–Au–Ag and late Pb–Zn–Cu mineralizations are characterized by quartz ± sericite + pyrite + chalcopyrite + bornite ± Au–Ag minerals ± magnetite ± molybdenite and calcite + dolomite + sphalerite + pyrite + chalcopyrite + galena, respectively. Calcite clusters and calcite ± quartz vein are formed during the late hydrothermal stage.The NaCl–H₂O–CO₂ system fluid, coexisting with NaCl–H₂O system fluid and showing the similar homogenization temperatures (385 °C and 356 °C, respectively) and different salinities (16.89–21.68 wt.% NaCl eqv. and 7.70–15.53 wt.% NaCl eqv.), suggests that fluid immiscibility occurred during the Cu–Au–Ag mineralization stage and might have given rise to the ore-metal precipitation. The ore-forming fluid of the Pb–Zn–Cu mineralization mainly belongs to the NaCl–H₂O–CO₂ system of high temperature (~ 401 °C) and mid-high salinity (10.79 wt.% NaCl eqv.).Fluids trapped in the quartz-chalcopyrite vein, Cu–Au–Ag ores, Pb–Zn–Cu ores and calcite clusters yielded δ¹⁸O_H2O and δD values varying from 5.54‰ to 13.11‰ and from − 71.8‰ to − 105.1‰, respectively, indicating that magmatic fluids may have played an important role in two mineralization events. The δ¹³C_PDB values of the calcite change from − 2.78‰ to − 4.63‰, indicating that the CO₃^2 − or CO₂ in the ore-forming fluid of the Pb–Zn–Cu mineralization was mainly sourced from the magmatic system, although dissolution of minor marine carbonate may have also occurred during the ore-forming processes. The sulfide minerals have homogeneous lead isotopic compositions with ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ranging from 17.958 to 18.587, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ranging from 15.549 to 15.701, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ranging from 37.976 to 39.052, indicating that metallic elements of the Linghou deposit came from a mixed source involving mantle and crustal components.Based on geological evidence, fluid inclusions, and H–O–C–S–Pb isotopic data, the Linghou polymetallic deposit is interpreted as a high-temperature, skarn-carbonate replacement type. Two types of mineralization are both related to the magmatic–hydrothermal system, with the Cu–Au–Ag mineralization having a close relationship with granodiorite.     

Geological and C–O–S–Pb–Sr isotopic constraints on the origin of the Qingshan carbonate-hosted Pb–Zn deposit,Southwest China

Located in the western Yangtze Block, the Qingshan Pb–Zn deposit, part of the Sichuan–Yunnan–Guizhou Pb–Zn metallogenic province, contains 0.3 million tonnes of 9.86 wt.% Pb and 22.27 wt.% Zn. Ore bodies are hosted in Carboniferous and Permian carbonate rocks, structurally controlled by the Weining–Shuicheng anticline and its intraformational faults. Ores composed of sphalerite, galena, pyrite, dolomite, and calcite occur as massive, brecciated, veinlets, and disseminations in dolomitic limestones.

The C–O isotope compositions of hydrothermal calcite and S–Pb–Sr isotope compositions of Qingshan sulphide minerals were analysed in order to trace the sources of reduced sulphur and metals for the Pb–Zn deposit. δ¹³C_PDB and δ¹⁸O_SMOW values of calcite range from –5.0‰ to –3.4‰ and +18.9‰ to +19.6‰, respectively, and fall in the field between mantle and marine carbonate rocks. They display a negative correlation, suggesting that CO₂ in the hydrothermal fluid had a mixed origin of mantle, marine carbonate rocks, and sedimentary organic matter. δ³⁴S values of sulphide minerals range from +10.7‰ to +19.6‰, similar to Devonian-to-Permian seawater sulphate (+20‰ to +35‰) and evaporite rocks (+23‰ to +28‰) in Carboniferous-to-Permian strata, suggesting that the reduced sulphur in hydrothermal fluids was derived from host-strata evaporites. Ores and sulphide minerals have homogeneous and low radiogenic Pb isotope compositions (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.561 to 18.768, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.701 to 15.920, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 38.831 to 39.641) that plot in the upper crust Pb evolution curve, and are similar to those of Devonian-to-Permian carbonate rocks. Pb isotope compositions suggest derivation of Pb metal from the host rocks. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of sphalerite range from 0.7107 to 0.7136 and (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_200Ma ratios range from 0.7099 to 0.7126, higher than Sinian-to-Permian sedimentary rocks and Permian Emeishan flood basalts, but lower than Proterozoic basement rocks. This indicates that the ore strontium has a mixture source of the older basement rocks and the younger cover sequence. C–O–S–Pb–Sr isotope compositions of the Qingshan Pb–Zn deposit indicate a mixed origin of the ore-forming fluids and metals.     

Volcanism,mineralization and metamorphism at the Xitieshan Pb–Zn deposit,NW China: Insights from zircon geochronology and geochemistry

The footwall volcanic rocks of the Ordovician Tanjianshan Group in the world-class Xitieshan Pb–Zn deposit have experienced prolonged arc volcanism followed by strong metamorphism and deformation. This has resulted in a complex thermal history and led to ambiguity in interpretation of zircon geochronological results. An integrated study involving textural characterization, CL imaging, trace element analysis, Ti-in-zircon thermometry and LA-ICPMS U–Pb dating has provided tight constraints on the age and genesis of the zircon groups in the volcanic rocks. The temperature of metamorphism and deformation indicated by metacryst minerals and micro-structures in the volcanic rocks ranges from 550 to 650 °C, which partially overlaps with the lower temperature range of zircon crystallization (600–750 °C) calculated using the Ti-in-zircon thermometer. Cathodoluminescence images and trace element compositions confirm a magmatic origin for the zircons, which have also been variably altered by metamorphic fluids. Two ranges of U–Pb ages, 475–470 Ma and 460–450 Ma, have been obtained on typical magmatic zircons and are interpreted to represent pre-mineralization arc volcanism in the Xitieshan deposit. A younger age group of 440–430 Ma for the fluid-modified zircons is considered to record post-ore metamorphism during the North Qadaim Orogeny. Thus, we propose that the original exhalative ores at the Xitieshan Pb–Zn deposit formed at 450–440 Ma.     

Mineralization and fluid evolution of the Jiyuan polymetallic Cu–Ag–Pb–Zn–Au deposit,eastern Tianshan,NW China

The newly discovered Jiyuan Cu–Ag–(Pb–Zn–Au) deposit is located in the southern section of the eastern Tianshan orogenic belt, Xinjiang, northwestern China. It is the first documented deposit in the large Aqikekuduke Ag–Cu–Au belt in the eastern Tianshan orogen. Detailed field observations, parageneses, and fluid inclusion studies suggest an epithermal ore genesis for the main Cu–Ag mineralization, accompanied by a complicated hydrothermal alteration history most likely associated with the multi-stage tectonic evolution of the eastern Tianshan. The Jiyuan Cu–Ag ore bodies are located along the EW-striking, south-dipping Aqikekuduke fault and are hosted by Precambrian marble and intercalated siliceous rocks. Early-stage skarn alteration occurred along the contact zone between the marble layers and Early Carboniferous diorite–granodiorite and monzogranite intrusions; the skarns are characterized by diopside–tremolite–andradite–pyrite–(magnetite) assemblages. Local REE-enriched synchysite–rutile–arsenopyrite–(clinochlorite–microcline–albite) assemblages are related to K–Na alteration associated with the monzogranite intrusions and formed under conditions of high temperature (310°C) and high salinity (19.9 wt.% NaCl). Subsequent hydrothermal alteration produced a series of quartz and calcite veins that precipitated from medium- to low-temperature saline fluids. These include early ‘smoky’ quartz veins (190°C; 3.0 wt.% NaCl) that are commonly barren, coarse-grained Cu–Ag mineralized quartz veins (210°C; 2.4 wt.% NaCl), and late-stage unmineralized calcite veins (140°C; 1.1 wt.% NaCl). Tremolite and Ca-rich scapolite veins formed at an interval between early and mineralized quartz veins, indicating a high-temperature, high-salinity (>500°C; 9.5 wt.% NaCl) Ca alteration stage. Fluid mixing may have played an important role during Cu–Ag mineralization and an external low-temperature Ca-rich fluid is inferred to have evolved in the ore-forming system. The Jiyuan auriferous quartz veins possess fluid characteristics distinct from those of the Cu–Ag mineralized quartz veins. CO₂-rich fluid inclusions, fluid boiling, and mixing all demonstrate that these auriferous quartz veins acted as hosts for the orogenic-type gold mineralization, a common feature in the Tianshan orogenic belt.     

Uraniferous bitumen nodules in the Talvivaara Ni–Zn–Cu–Co deposit (Finland): influence of metamorphism on uranium mineralization in black shales

In the central part of the Fennoscandian Shield, the Talvivaara Ni–Zn–Cu–Co deposit, hosted by Palaeoproterozoic metamorphosed black schists, contains low uranium concentrations ranging from 10 to 30 ppm. The Talvivaara black schists were deposited 2.0–1.9 Ga ago and underwent subsequent metamorphism during the 1.9–1.79 Ga Svecofennian orogeny. Anhedral uraninite crystals rimmed by bitumen constitute the main host of uranium. U–Pb secondary ion mass spectrometry dating indicates that uraninite crystals were formed between 1,878?±?17 and 1,871?±?43 Ma, during peak metamorphism. Rare earth element patterns and high Th content (average 6.38 wt%) in disseminated uraninite crystals indicate that U was concentrated during high temperature metamorphism (>400 °C). The formation of bitumen rims around uraninite may be explained by two distinct scenarios: (a) a transport of U coincident with the migration of hydrocarbons or (b) post-metamorphic formation of bitumen rims, through radiolytic polymerization of gaseous hydrocarbons at the contact with uraninite.     

Skarn mineralogy and its geological significance for the Tayuan (Cu–Mo)–Pb–Zn deposit,northern Daxinganling metallogenic belt

The Tayuan (Cu–Mo)–Pb–Zn deposit is located in the northern part of Daxinganling, NE China. Lenticular ore body occurs in the skarn zone. The skarn minerals mainly include garnet, pyroxene, epidote and wollastonite. Electron microprobe analysis shows that the end member of garnet is mainly andradite (Ad_62–97Gr_11–45), the pyroxene is mainly diopside, and epidote is mainly clinozoisite. These characteristics indicate that the Tayuan polymetallic skarn deposit is mainly calcareous skarn. Sometimes the content zonation can be observed in garnets. With one garnet crystal, content is shifty from the core to the rim. In general, the iron content in the core is higher than in the edge. The content in the garnet shows that the garnet in the Tayuan deposit formed from weak oxidation in alkaline environment with the oxygen fugacity increasing, suggesting that the hydrothermal fluid evolved from an acidic to a slight alkaline state. In the Tayuan polymetallic deposit, the ratio of Mn/Fe in pyroxene is about 1.3, and of Mg/Fe, it is about 2. The components of garnet in the Tayuan deposit plot in the field of the typical skarn Zn, Cu, Mo deposits in the world.     

Middle Devonian volcanic rocks in the Weibao Cu–Pb–Zn deposit,East Kunlun Mountains,NW China: Zircon chronology and tectonic implications

The Weibao copper–lead–zinc deposit, located in the eastern part of the Qimantagh area, East Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB), consists of three skarn ore blocks known as Weixi, Main and Weidong from west to east. The mineralization within the Weibao Cu–Pb–Zn deposit is hosted by the Mesoproterozoic Langyashan Formation. In this study, we describe for the first time basaltic lavas that intruded into this host sequence and chronological, isotopic, major and trace element data of these volcanic rocks are presented here to constrain their eruption age as well as the tectonic setting. Two basaltic lava samples yield sensitive, high-resolution ion-microprobe (SHRIMP) U–Pb zircon ages of 393.0 ± 5.5 Ma–392.0 ± 5.0 Ma, indicating that volcanic rocks in the Weibao deposit erupted in Middle Devonian. The majority of the volcanic rocks have compositions characterized by high potassium, light rare earth element (LREE)-enriched patterns in chondrite-normalized rare earth elements (REE) diagrams, and evident enrichment of Rb, Ba and K and depletion of Th, U, Nb and Ta contents in primitive mantle-normalized patterns, although the degrees of enrichment and depletion are variable. These characteristics of major and trace element data highlight a hornblende-dominated fractionation during ascent of magmas. The εHf(T) values of zircons are relatively scattered and slightly enriched, ranging from −2.6 to +7.5. Modelling the features of the major, trace and isotopic element data indicates a hybrid origin involving combined depleted mantle (and hence asthenospheric mantle) and melts and/or fluids inherited from an early subduction event. Besides, these geochronological and geochemical data, together with previously published data in the EKOB, suggest that the Weibao basaltic lavas formed in a post-collisional setting, and that the Qimantagh area underwent strong interactions between mantle and crust in Early Paleozoic–Middle Devonian.     

Numerical heat and fluid flow modeling of the Hercynian Draa Sfar polymetallic (Zn–Pb–Cu) massive sulfide deposit,Central Jbilets,Morocco

Draa Sfar is a polymetallic (Zn–Pb–Cu) volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit with an actual resource of 13 Mt at 4.0% Zn and 1.3% Pb. It is part of the central Jbilets area known for its several Cu–Zn ore deposits. The ore is hosted in the upper Visean-Namurien sedimentary formation. Owing to the complexity of the geology of the ore deposits, numerical simulation approach was attempted to shed light into the temperature distribution, the circulation of the hydrothermal fluid and the genesis of massive sulfide ore bodies by evaluating the permeability, porosity, and thermal conductivity. On the basis of this simulation approach, the ore is predicted to be deposited at a temperature ranging between 230 and 290 °C. This temperature range is dependent on the pre-existing temperature of the discharge area where a metal-rich fluid precipitated the ore. The duration of the Draa Sfar ore body formation is predicted to be 15, 000 to 50, 000 years. Based on geological studies of Draa Sfar deposit together with the aforementioned results of the simulation approach, an ore genetic model for the massive sulfide ore bodies is proposed. In this model, the supply of ore-forming fluids is ensured by the combination of seawater and magmatic waters. Magma that generated rhyodacite dome acted as the heat source that remobilized the circulation of these ore-bearing fluids. The NW-SE trending faults acted as potential pathways for both the downward and upward migration of the ore-forming fluids. Due to their high permeability, the ignimbritic facies, host rocks of Draa Sfar ore bodies, have favored the circulation of the fluids. The mixing between the ore-forming fluids of magmatic origin and the descending seawaters and/or in situ pore waters led to the formation the ore bodies in 35,000 years. The position and size of the ore body, determined by the simulation approach, is consistent with the actual field geological data.     

The Hakkari nonsulfide Zn–Pb deposit in the context of other nonsulfide Zn–Pb deposits in the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt of Turkey

The Hakkari nonsulfide zinc deposit is situated close to the southeastern border of Turkey. Here both sulfide and nonsulfide Zn ≫ Pb ores are hosted in carbonate rocks of the Jurassic Cudi Group with features typical of carbonate-hosted supergene nonsulfide zinc mineralization. The regional strike extent of the mineralized district is at least 60 km. The age of the supergene deposit has not been determined, but it is probable that the main weathering happened during Upper Tertiary, possibly between Upper Miocene and Lower Pliocene. The Hakkari mineralization can be compared to other carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb deposits in Turkey, and an interpretation made of its geological setting. The zinc mineral association at Hakkari typically comprises smithsonite and hemimorphite, which apparently replace both sulfide minerals and carbonate host rock. Two generations of smithsonite are present: the first is relatively massive, the second occurs as concretions in cavities as a final filling of remnant porosity. Some zinc is also hosted within Fe–Mn-(hydr)oxides. Lead is present in cerussite, but also as partially oxidized galena. Lead can also occur in Mn-(hydr)oxides (max 30% PbO). The features of the supergene mineralization suggest that the Hakkari deposit belongs both to the “direct replacement” and the “wall-rock replacement” types of nonsulfide ores. Mineralization varies in style from tabular bodies of variable thickness (< 0.5 to 13 m) to cross-cutting breccia zones and disseminated ore minerals in pore spaces and fracture planes. At Hakkari a As–Sb–Tl(≫ Hg) geochemical association has been detected, which may point to primary sulfide mineralization, quite different from typical MVT.     

REE and isotope (Sr,S, and Pb) geochemistry to constrain the genesis and timing of the F–(Ba–Pb–Zn) ores of the Zaghouan District (NE Tunisia)

The F–(Ba–Pb–Zn) ore deposits of the Zaghouan District, located in NE Tunisia, occur as open space fillings or stratabound orebodies, hosted in Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary layers. The chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns may be split into three groups: (i) “Normal marine” patterns characterizing the wallrock carbonates; (ii) light REE (LREE) enriched (slide-shaped) patterns with respect to heavy REE (HREE), with small negative Ce and Eu anomalies, characteristic of the early ore stages; (iii) Bell-shaped REE patterns displaying LREE depletion, as well as weak negative Ce and Eu anomalies, characterizing residual fluids of subsequent stages. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios (0.707654–0.708127 ± 8), show that the Sr of the epigenetic carbonates (dolomite, calcite) and ore minerals (fluorite, celestite) are more radiogenic than those of the country (Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, lower Miocene) sedimentary rocks. The uniformity of this ratio, throughout the District, provides evidence for the isotopic homogeneity and, consequently, the identity of the source of the mineralizing fluids. This signature strongly suggests that the radiogenic Sr is carried by Upper Paleozoic basinal fluids.The δ³⁴S values of barite, associated to mineralizations, are close to those of the Triassic sea water (17‰). The δ³⁴S values of sulfide minerals range from − 13.6‰ to + 11.4‰, suggesting two sulfur-reduced end members (BSR/TSR) with a dominant BSR process.Taking account of the homogeneity in the Pb-isotope composition of galenas (18.833–18.954 ± 0.001, 15.679–15.700 ± 0.001 and 38.690–38.880 ± 0.004, for the ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios respectively), a single upper crustal source for base-metals is accepted. The Late Paleozoic basement seems to be the more plausible source for F–Pb–Zn concentrated in the deposits. The genesis of the Zaghouan District ore deposits is considered as the result of the Zaghouan Fault reactivation during the Late Miocene period.     

Geochemical constraints on the genesis of the Pb–Zn deposit of Jalta (northern Tunisia): Implications for timing of mineralization,sources of metals and relationship to the Neogene volcanism

The occurrence of Pb–Zn deposits of Jalta district (northern Tunisia) as open space fillings and cements and breccia in the contact zones between Triassic dolostones and Miocene conglomerates along or near major faults provides evidence of the relationship between the mineralization and tectonic processes. Pb isotopes in galena from the deposits yielded average ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of 18.821, 15.676 and 38.837, respectively, implying a well-mixed multi-source upper crustal reservoir of metals. Magmatism and compressional tectonism during the Alpine orogeny favored Pb–Zn mineralization in the Jalta district. The enrichment in Pb, Zn, Cd and Co of the Triassic carbonates and enrichments in Pb, Zn and Cd in Triassic clayey shales is associated with hydrothermal alteration around faults. Alunite in the deposit has δ³⁴S values (−2.5 to −1.5‰ VCDT), which could have been formed at and above the water table in a kind of steam-heated environment, where fluids containing H₂S mixed with fluids containing K and Al. The H₂S could have been produced by TSR of sulfates at high temperature at depth and then leaked upward through deep-seated faults, whereas the K and Al could have been acid-leached from Miocene volcanic rocks.     

Cadmium and sulfur isotopic compositions of the Tianbaoshan Zn–Pb–Cd deposit,Sichuan Province,China

Although Zn–Pb deposits are one of the most important Cd reservoirs in the earth, few studies have focused on the Cd isotopic fractionation in Zn–Pb hydrothermal systems. This study investigates the causes and consequences of cadmium and sulfur isotope fractionation in a large hydrothermal system at the Tianbaoshan Zn–Pb–Cd deposit from the Sichuan–Yunnan–Guizhou (SYG) metallogenic province, SW China. Moderate variations in Cd and S isotope compositions have been measured in sphalerite cover a distance of about 78 m. Sphalerite has δ^114/110Cd values ranging from 0.01 to 0.57‰, and sulfides (sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite) have δ³⁴S_CDT values ranging from 0.2 to 5.0‰. Although δ³⁴S_CDT and δ^114/110Cd values in sphalerites have no regular spatial variations, the δ³⁴S_CDT values in galena and calculated ore-forming fluid temperatures decreased from 2.1 to 0.2‰ and from about 290 to 130 °C, respectively, from the bottom to the top of the deposit. Heavy Cd isotopes are enriched in early precipitated sphalerite in contrast to previous studies. We suggest that Cd isotopic compositions in ore-forming fluids are heterogeneous, which result in heavy Cd isotope enrichment in early precipitated sphalerite. In comparison with other Zn–Pb deposits in the SYG area, the Tianbaoshan deposit has moderate Cd contents and small isotope fractionation, suggesting differences in origin to other Zn–Pb deposits in the SYG province.In the Tianbaoshan deposit, the calculated δ³⁴S∑_S-fluids value is 4.2‰, which is not only higher than the mantle-derived magmatic sulfur (0 ± 3‰), but also quite lower than those of Ediacaran marine sulfates (about 30 to 35‰). Thus, we suggest that reduced sulfur of ore-forming fluids in the deposit was mainly derived from the leaching of the basement, which contains large amount of volcanic or intrusive rocks. Based upon a combination of Cd and S isotopic systems, the Tianbaoshan deposit has different geochemical characteristics from typical Zn–Pb deposits (e.g., the Huize deposit) in SYG area, indicating the unique origin of this deposit.     

The Nadun Cu–Au mineralization,central Tibet: Root of a high sulfidation epithermal deposit

A new high sulfidation epithermal Cu–Au occurrence (Nadun) has been discovered adjacent to the Cretaceous Duolong porphyry Cu–Au deposit within the Bangong–Nujiang metallogenic belt, central Tibet. The Nadun Cu–Au mineralization is hosted in a tectonic–hydrothermal breccia with advanced argillic alteration, which occurs above sandstone, associated with quartz–pyrite veins. The granodiorite porphyry with strong argillic alteration yields a zircon U–Pb age of 119.1 ± 1.3 Ma, whereas the weakly argillic granodiorite porphyry intruded into the breccia has a younger age of 116.1 ± 1.3 Ma. This indicates that Cu–Au epithermal mineralization likely occurred between ~ 116 Ma and ~ 119 Ma, consistent with the duration of magmatic–hydrothermal activity at Duolong (~ 115–118 Ma), and providing evidence that Nadun and Duolong were formed during the same event. Moreover, the Nadun and Duolong porphyries have similar Hf isotopic compositions (εHf(t) values ranging from − 8.8 to 8.1; mean = 5.0 ± 1.1, n = 32), likely indicating that the deposits are comagmatic. In addition, boiling assemblages in vapor-rich inclusions coexisting with brines occur in early stage quartz–pyrite veins, and likely record phase separation at a temperature of > 550–300 °C and pressure of 700–110 bars. Most liquid-rich fluid inclusions formed at the breccia stage show similar salinity (1.7–19.3 wt.% NaCl equiv) to vapor-rich inclusions from the underlying quartz–pyrite veins, likely indicating vapor contraction during cooling at elevated presssure. This suggests that quartz–pyrite veins may act as conduits for ore-forming fluid traveling from the porphyry to the epithermal hydrothermal system. O and H isotopic compositions (δ¹⁸O_fluid = 0.42–9.71‰ and δD = − 102 to − 66‰) suggest that ore-forming fluids are dominantly from a magmatic source with a minor addition of meteoric water at a later stage. The S and Fe isotope compositions of sulfides (δ³⁴S = − 5.9 to 0.5‰ and δ⁵⁷Fe = − 2.15 to 0.17‰) decrease from the quartz–pyrite vein to breccia ore, indicating that ore-forming fluids gradually become SO₄²-enriched and relatively oxidized. This body of evidence suggests that the Nadun Cu–Au mineralization may represent the root of a high sulfidation epithermal deposit.