Regional simulations to quantify land use change and irrigation impacts on hydroclimate in the California Central Valley

In this study, the influence of land use change and irrigation in the California Central Valley is quantified using the Pennsylvania State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research fifth generation Mesoscale Model (MM5) coupled with the Community Land Model version 3 (CLM3). The simulations were forced with modern-day and presettlement land use types at 30-km spatial resolution for the period 1 October 1995 to 30 September 1996. This study shows that land use change has significantly altered the structure of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) that affects near-surface temperature. In contrast, many land-use change studies indicate that albedo and evapotranspiration variations are the key processes influencing climate at local-to-regional scales. Our modeling results show that modern-day daily maximum near-surface air temperature (Tmax) has decreased due to agricultural expansion since presettlement. This decrease is caused by weaker sensible heat flux resulting from the lower surface roughness lengths associated with modern-day crops. The lower roughness lengths in the Central Valley also result in stronger winds that lead to a higher PBL. The higher PBL produces stronger sensible heat flux, causing nighttime warming. In addition to land use change, cropland irrigation has also affected hydroclimate processes within the California Central Valley. We generated a 10-member MM5-CLM3 ensemble simulation, where each ensemble member was forced by a fixed volumetric soil water content (SWC) between 3% and 30%, at 3% intervals, over the irrigated areas during a spring?Csummer growing season, 1 March to 31 August 1996. The results show that irrigation lowers the modern-day cropland surface temperature. Daytime cooling is produced by irrigation-related evaporation enhancement. This increased evaporation also dominates the nighttime surface cooling process. Surface cooling and the resulting weaker sensible heat flux further lower the near-surface air temperature. Thus, irrigation strengthens the daytime near-surface air temperature reduction that is caused by land use change, and a similar temperature change is seen for observations over irrigated cropland. Based on our modeling results, the nighttime near-surface warming induced by land use change is alleviated by low-intensity irrigation (17%?<?SWC?<?19%), but such warming completely reverses to a cooling effect under high-intensity irrigation (SWC?>?19%). The land use changes discussed in this study are commonly observed in many regions of the world, and the physical processes identified here can be used to better understand temperature variations over other areas with similar land cover changes.     

Influence of modern land cover on the climate of the United States

I have used a high-resolution nested climate modeling system to test the sensitivity of regional and local climate to the modern non-urban land cover distribution of the continental United States. The dominant climate response is cooling of surface air temperatures, particularly during the warm-season. Areas of statistically significant cooling include areas of the Great Plains where crop/mixed farming has replaced short grass, areas of the Midwest and southern Texas where crop/mixed farming has replaced interrupted forest, and areas of the western United States containing irrigated crops. This statistically significant warm-season cooling is driven by changes in both surface moisture balance and surface albedo, with changes in surface moisture balance dominating in the Great Plains and western United States, changes in surface albedo dominating in the Midwest, and both effects contributing to warm-season cooling over southern Texas. The simulated changes in surface moisture and energy fluxes also influence the warm-season atmospheric dynamics, creating greater moisture availability in the lower atmosphere and enhanced uplift aloft, consistent with the enhanced warm-season precipitation seen in the simulation with modern land cover. The local and regional climate response is of a similar magnitude to that projected for future greenhouse gas concentrations, suggesting that the climatic effects of land cover change should be carefully considered when crafting policies for regulating land use and for managing anthropogenic forcing of the climate system.     

中国农田下垫面变化对气候影响的模拟研究

使用同期的美国国家环境预报中心/能源部(NCEP/DOE)再分析资料驱动区域气候耦合模式AVIM-RIEMS2.0,从遥感卫星图像资料中获取3期中国土地利用/覆盖数据中的农田植被类型,将其分别引入到AVIM-RIEMS2.0模式进行积分,研究中国农田下垫面变化对东亚区域气候的影响。结果表明:中国农田变化对气候影响具有冬季弱、夏季强的季节性变化,夏季气温和降水的差异在一些地区通过了95%的显著性检验;20世纪80年代农田扩张,林地、草地为主的植被类型转化为农田,植被变化区域的叶面积指数降低,反照率升高,且通过了95%的显著性检验,使得中国东部地区的气温由南到北呈现增加—减少—增加—减少的相间变化趋势,而降水的变化趋势大体相反;20世纪90年代农田面积减少,除东北地区外,农田变化引起的植被变化与80年代基本相反,叶面积指数变化、反照率以及由此导致的气候各要素也呈现大体相反的变化趋势;不同时期农田变化引起的植被类型转化的差异,使850 hPa风场变化趋势基本相反,可能是导致气温和降水变化趋势差异的主要原因之一。     

The Statistical Significance Test of Regional Climate Change Caused by Land Use and Land Cover Variation in West China

The West Development Policy being implemented in China is causing significant land use and land cover （LULC） changes in West China. With the up-to-date satellite database of the Global Land Cover Characteristics Database （GLCCD） that characterizes the lower boundary conditions, the regional climate model RIEMS-TEA is used to simulate possible impacts of the significant LULC variation. The model was run for five continuous three-month periods from 1 June to 1 September of 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997, and the results of the five groups are examined by means of a student t-test to identify the statistical significance of regional climate variation. The main results are： （1） The regional climate is affected by the LULC variation because the equilibrium of water and heat transfer in the air-vegetation interface is changed. （2） The integrated impact of the LULC variation on regional climate is not only limited to West China where the LULC varies, but also to some areas in the model domain where the LULC does not vary at all. （3） The East Asian monsoon system and its vertical structure are adjusted by the large scale LULC variation in western China, where the consequences are the enhancement of the westward water vapor transfer from the east oast and the relevant increase of wet-hydrostatic energy in the middle-upper atmospheric layers. （4） The ecological engineering in West China affects significantly the regional climate in Northwest China, North China and the middle-lower reaches of the Yangtze River; there are obvious effects in South, Northeast, and Southwest China, but minor effects in Tibet.     

地表利用城市化在一次极端高温过程数值模拟中的影响

地表种类的城市化对城市区域的热力结构和局地环流都会产生巨大的影响。利用地面、高空观测资料和MODIS地表覆盖资料,使用耦合城市冠层模式(UCM)的区域中尺度数值模式(WRF),对2013年8月8日福州地区的一次极端高温天气过程进行数值模拟,研究地表利用变化对福州城市热岛效应及其对福州城市区域局地环流的影响。结果表明:地表利用的城市化使得午后城市热岛现象更加明显而夜间热岛效应呈现出减小的趋势;地表利用城市化后,中心城区的近地面风速减小,但城区与山区以及城区与海洋之间的局地热力环流明显加强,促进了山谷风和海陆风环流的发展;同时地表加热效应增强,促进了垂直运动的发展。      

Can crop albedo be increased through the modification of leaf trichomes,and could this cool regional climate?

Managing the land surface to increase albedo to offset regional warming has received less attention than managing the land surface to sequester carbon. We test whether increasing agricultural albedo can cool regional climate. We first used the Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0) coupled to the Community Land Model (CLM 3.0) to assess the broad climatic effects of a hypothetical implementation of a strategy in which the albedo of cropland regions is increased using high albedo crops. Simulations indicate that planting brighter crops can decrease summertime maximum daily 2 m air temperature by 0.25°C per 0.01 increase in surface albedo at high latitudes (>30°). However, planting brighter crops at low latitudes (<30°) may have negative repercussions including warming the land surface and decreasing precipitation, because increasing the land surface albedo tends to preferentially decrease latent heat fluxes to the atmosphere, which decreases cloud cover and rainfall. We then test a possible method for increasing crop albedo by measuring the range of albedo within 16 isolines of soybeans that differ only with trichome color, orientation, and density but find that such modifications had only minor impacts on leaf albedo. Increasing agricultural albedo may cool high latitude regional climate, but increasing plant albedo sufficiently to offset potential future warming will require larger changes to plant albedo than are currently available.     

Numerical simulation of the impact of land cover change on regional climate in China

Land use and land cover change (LUCC) can modify the physical and thermodynamic characteristics of the land surface, including surface roughness, albedo, and vegetation fraction, among others. These direct changes can result in a series of impacts on regional climate. In this paper, the simulated results over China under the scenario of LUCC using weather research and forecasting model are presented. The period for the simulation is from December 2006 to December 2011. Two experiments are initialized by the LUCC datasets derived from the MODIS data of 2001 and 2008, respectively. The results show that the LUCC in most areas of China reduces the surface albedo and increases the surface temperature. Especially in the Hetao Plain, the magnitude of increased surface temperature is above 0.5 °C in winter, and the increase in winter is more obvious than in summer. The precipitation in the Hetao Plain increases. The sensible heat in most parts of East China is reduced, while the latent heat is increased in most areas of China.     

Effects of Land Cover Conversion on Surface Climate

This study investigates the effects of large-scale human modification of land cover on regional and global climate. A general circulation model (Colorado State University GCM) coupled to a biophysically-based land surface model (SiB2) was used to run two 15-yr climate simulations. The control run used current vegetation distribution as observed by satellite for the year 1987 to derive the vegetation's physiological and morphological properties. The twin simulation used a realistic approximation of vegetation type distribution that would exist in the absence of human disturbance.In temperate latitudes, where anthropogenic modification of the landscape has converted large areas of forest and grassland to cropland, conversion cools canopy temperatures up to 0.7 ° C in summer and 1.1 ° C in winter. This cooling results from both (1) morphological changes in vegetation which increase albedo and (2) physiological changes in vegetation which increase latent heat flux of crops compared with undisturbed vegetation during the growing season. In the tropics and subtropics, conversion warms canopy temperature by about 0.8 ° C year round. The warming results from a combination of morphological changes in vegetation offset by physiological changes that reduce latent heat flux of existing compared with undisturbed vegetation. If water efficient, tropical C4 grasses replace C3 vegetation, latent heat flux is further reduced.The overall effect of land cover conversion is cooling in temperate latitudes and warming in the tropics. Because the effects are opposite in sign in tropics and middle latitudes, they cancel each other when averaged globally. Over land, the surface temperature increased by 0.2 C in winter and remained essentially unchanged in summer. The effects on land surface hydrology were also small when averaged globally. The results suggest that the effects of land use change of the observed magnitude do not have a strong impact on the globally averaged climate but their signature at regional scales is significant and vary according to the type of land cover conversion.     

Estimations of Land Surface Characteristic Parameters and TurbulentHeat Fluxes over the Tibetan Plateau Based on FY-4A/AGRI Data

正Nan GE1, Lei ZHONG*1,2,3, Yaoming MA4,5,6, Yunfei FU1, Mijun ZOU1,Meilin CHENG1, Xian WANG1, and Ziyu HUANG1     

GMS 5反演中国几类典型下垫面晴空地表温度的日变化及季节变化

文中利用单时相双光谱分裂窗算法以GMS 5/VISSR红外资料反演地表温度,揭示了中国几类典型下垫面晴空地表温度的日变化及季节变化特征.塔里木盆地、青藏高原、浑善达克沙地、华北平原北部、华南部分地区因地表反射率、土壤含水量、受太阳辐射影响程度不同等地表温度季节变化差异很大,月平均地表温度日较差一年内基本上呈双峰双谷型.作为比较,东亚部分陆地的地表温度与台湾海峡南部、黄海的海表温度及其日变化、季节变化一并进行了分析.塔里木盆地、浑善达克沙地不仅具有强烈的日变化,而且季节变化也显著.2000年两地月平均地表温度日较差最大值超过30 K,浑善达克沙地的年较差高达58.50 K.青藏高原地表温度季节变化小于东亚部分陆地、塔里木盆地、浑善达克沙地,但该区日变化幅度在所研究几个区中最大,2000年年平均日较差达28.05 K.文中将研究时段扩充到1998～2000年后揭示了连续三年地表温度及其日变化的年际变化特征.所获得这几类地表温度的变化特征与量值对于气候与辐射收支研究以及推测地表状况会有一定参考价值.     

中国西部退耕还林(草)和沙漠化土地绿化的区域性气候效应

中国正在实施的西部大开发必将导致较大规模的土地利用和地表覆盖(LULC)变化,其中最重要的两类LULC变化是退耕还林(草)和沙漠化土地绿化工程。利用最新的全球地表特征资料数据库(GLCCD)识别以上两项生态建设工程的实施规模与范围,并以此更新了目前比较流行的区域气候模式的下边界条件,利用修正了的区域气候模式研究上述大规模LULC变化可能对中国区域性气候造成的影响。使用的卫星资源数据库是由美国地质测绘局(USGS)和Nebraska-Lincoln大学牵头,根据NOAA卫星的AVHRR资料、USGS掌握的高分辨率数字化地图,以及生态区划和植被分布等资料组建的。     

Diurnal and Seasonal Variation of Clear-Sky Land Surface Temperature of Several Representative Land Surface Types in China Retrieved by GMS-5

The retrieved results in this paper by GMS-5/VISSR thermal infrared data with single time/dual channel Split-Window Algorithm reveal the characteristics of diurnal and seasonal variation of clear-sky land surface temperature (LST) of several representative land surface types in China,including Tarim Basin,Qinghai- Tibetan Plateau,Hunshandake Sands,North China Plain,and South China.The seasonal variation of clear-sky LST in above areas varies distinctly for the different surface albedo,soil water content,and the extent of influence by solar radiation.The monthly average diurnal ranges of LST have two peaks and two valleys in one year.The characteristics of LST in most land of East Asia and that of sea surface temperature (SST) in the south of Taiwan Strait and the Yellow Sea are also analyzed as comparison.Tarim Basin and Hunshandake Sands have not only considerable LST diurnal cycle but also remarkable seasonal variation. In 2000,the maximum monthly average diurnal ranges of LST in both areas are over 30 K,and the annual range in Hunshadake Sands reaches 58.50 K.Seasonal variation of LST in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is less than those in East Asia,Tarim Basin,and Hunshandake Sands.However,the maximum diurnal range exists in this area.The yearly average diurnal range is 28.05 K in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in 2000.The characteristics of diurnal,seasonal,and annual variation from 1998 to 2000 are also shown in this research. All the results will be valuable to the research of climate change,radiation balance,and estimation for the change of land surface types.     

Statistical estimation of high-resolution surface air temperature from MODIS over the Yangtze River Delta,China

High-resolution surface air temperature data are critical to regional climate modeling in terms of energy balance, urban climate change, and so on. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface temperature (LST) to estimate air temperature at a high resolution over the Yangtze River Delta region, China. It is found that daytime LST is highly correlated with maximum air temperature, and the linear regression coefficients vary with the type of land surface. The air temperature at a resolution of 1 km is estimated from the MODIS LST with linear regression models. The estimated air temperature shows a clear spatial structure of urban heat islands. Spatial patterns of LST and air temperature differences are detected, indicating maximum differences over urban and forest regions during summer. Validations are performed with independent data samples, demonstrating that the mean absolute error of the estimated air temperature is approximately 2.5°C, and the uncertainty is about 3.1°C, if using all valid LST data. The error is reduced by 0.4°C (15%) if using best-quality LST with errors of less than 1 K. The estimated high-resolution air temperature data have great potential to be used in validating high-resolution climate models and other regional applications.     

基于MODIS数据地表反照率时空变化特征及影响因子研究

地表反照率表征地球表面对太阳辐射的反射能力,是影响地表辐射能量收支平衡的关键参数。本文以淮河流域为例,利用MODIS（MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer）数据,采用网格趋势分析、异常变化分析、相关分析和灰色关联度分析等方法,分析了淮河流域2005～2015年地表反照率的时空变化规律,以及土地利用类型、地形因子、地表参数和气候等影响因子。结果表明:淮河流域年平均地表反照率整体呈“北高南低、东高西低”的空间分布规律,变化在0.043～0.223,平均值为 0.145。低值区主要集中于水体密集和山区丘陵地带,且标准差相对较小;高值区主要集中于流域中部及东部平原地带,且标准差较大。61.5%的区域地表反照率呈增加趋势,且存在季节性差异,夏季平均地表反照率最大,春季次之,秋季最小,冬季则由于降雪覆盖和农田利用的影响波动幅度较大。淮河流域地表反照率与归一化植被指数（Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI）、地表温度、气温和降水在大部分区域呈正相关,面积占比分别达到90.23%、82.32%、85.41%和93.70%。灰色关联度分析表明,不同土地利用类型（水体除外）下年均地表反照率受各因子影响排序为:NDVI>气温>地表温度>降水,空间变化受各因子影响排序为:NDVI>降水>地表温度>气温>高程。     

Temperature response to future urbanization and climate change

This study examines the impact of future urban expansion on local near-surface temperature for Sydney (Australia) using a future climate scenario (A2). The Weather Research and Forecasting model was used to simulate the present (1990–2009) and future (2040–2059) climates of the region at 2-km spatial resolution. The standard land use of the model was replaced with a more accurate dataset that covers the Sydney area. The future simulation incorporates the projected changes in the urban area of Sydney to account for the expected urban expansion. A comparison between areas with projected land use changes and their surroundings was conducted to evaluate how urbanization and global warming will act together and to ascertain their combined effect on the local climate. The analysis of the temperature changes revealed that future urbanization will strongly affect minimum temperature, whereas little impact was detected for maximum temperature. The minimum temperature changes will be noticeable throughout the year. However, during winter and spring these differences will be particularly large and the increases could be double the increase due to global warming alone at 2050. Results indicated that the changes were mostly due to increased heat capacity of urban structures and reduced evaporation in the city environment.     

北方土地利用变化对中国夏季气候可能影响的敏感性试验

为考察中国北方地区当代土地利用变化对中国夏季气候的可能影响,以区域气候模式RegCM3为模拟工具,利用1992年和1999年的土地利用资料,进行了中国地区植被覆盖变化的敏感性试验。结果表明,中国北方地区土地利用/植被覆盖的改变,将通过影响大气环流和改变陆地—大气或植被—大气之间的能量平衡状态等,对降水和气温等产生较大影响。     

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TWO LAND SURFACE SCHEMES IN WRF MODEL OVER EASTERN CHINA

Two land surface models, Community Land Model (CLM3.5) and NOAH model, have been coupled to the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model and been used to simulate the precipitation, temperature, and circulation fields, respectively, over eastern China in a typical flood year (1998). The purpose of this study is to reveal the effects of land surface changes on regional climate modeling. Comparisons of simulated results and observation data indicate that changes in land surface processes have significant impact on spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation and temperature patterns in eastern China. Coupling of the CLM3.5 to the WRF model (experiment WRF-C) substantially improves the simulation results over eastern China relative to an older version of WRF coupled to the NOAH-LSM (experiment WRF-N). It is found that the simulation of the spatial pattern of summer precipitation in WRF-C is better than in WRF-N. WRF-C also significantly reduces the summer positive bias of surface air temperature, and its simulated surface air temperature matches more closely to observations than WRF-N does, which is associated with lower sensible heat fluxes and higher latent heat fluxes in WRF-C.     

Modeling the impact of urbanization on the local and regional climate in Yangtze River Delta, China

The Yangtze River Delta Economic Belt is one of the most active and developed areas in China and has experienced quick urbanization with fast economic development. The weather research and forecasting model (WRF), with a single-layer urban canopy parameterization scheme, is used to simulate the influence of urbanization on climate at local and regional scales in this area. The months January and July, over a 5-year period (2003–2007), were selected to represent the winter and summer climate. Two simulation scenarios were designed to investigate the impacts of urbanization: (1) no urban areas and (2) urban land cover determined by MODIS satellite observations in 2005. Simulated near-surface temperature, wind speed and specific humidity agree well with the corresponding measurements. By comparing the simulations of the two scenarios, differences in near-surface temperature, wind speed and precipitation were quantified. The conversion of rural land (mostly irrigation cropland) to urban land cover results in significant changes to near-surface temperature, humidity, wind speed and precipitation. The mean near-surface temperature in urbanized areas increases on average by 0.45?±?0.43°C in winter and 1.9?±?0.55°C in summer; the diurnal temperature range in urbanized areas decreases on average by 0.13?±?0.73°C in winter and 0.55?±?0.84°C in summer. Precipitation increases about 15% over urban or leeward areas in summer and changes slightly in winter. The urbanization impact in summer is stronger and covers a larger area than that in winter due to the regional east-Asian monsoon climate characterized by warm, wet summers and cool, dry winters.     

Assessment of urban heat island effect for different land use–land cover from micrometeorological measurements and remote sensing data for megacity Delhi

Urban heat island intensities (UHI) have been assessed based on in situ measurements and satellite-derived observations for the megacity Delhi during a selected period in March 2010. A network of micrometeorological observational stations was set up across the city. Site selection for stations was based on dominant land use–land cover (LULC) classification. Observed UHI intensities could be classified into high, medium and low categories which overall correlated well with the LULC categories viz. dense built-up, medium dense built-up and green/open areas, respectively. Dense urban areas and highly commercial areas were observed to have highest UHI with maximum hourly magnitude peaking up to 10.7 °C and average daily maximum UHI reaching 8.3 °C. UHI obtained in the study was also compared with satellite-derived land surface temperatures (LST). UHI based on in situ ambient temperatures and satellite-derived land surface temperatures show reasonable comparison during nighttime in terms of UHI magnitude and hotspots. However, the relation was found to be poor during daytime. Further, MODIS-derived LSTs showed overestimation during daytime and underestimation during nighttime when compared with in situ skin temperature measurements. Impact of LULC was also reflected in the difference between ambient temperature and skin temperature at the observation stations as built-up canopies reported largest gradient between air and skin temperature. Also, a comparison of intra-city spatial temperature variations based UHI vis-à-vis a reference rural site temperature-based UHI indicated that UHI can be computed with respect to the station measuring lowest temperature within the urban area in the absence of a reference station in the rural area close to the study area. Comparison with maximum and average UHI of other cities of the world revealed that UHI in Delhi is comparable to other major cities of the world such as London, Tokyo and Beijing and calls for mitigation action plans.     

我国西北大规模太阳能与风能发电场建设产生的可能气候效应

作为取之不尽的清洁能源,太阳能和风能将是未来潜力最大的可再生能源,是解决全球变暖、能源短缺、环境恶化等问题的有效途径。然而太阳能和风能的能量密度偏小,大规模建设太阳能和风能发电场将改变大面积的地表属性,有可能通过陆气相互作用过程,改变局地和区域气候,甚至有可能通过遥相关过程,产生更大的气候影响。本文利用RegCM4.5区域数值模式,模拟了在我国西北干旱和半干旱区域建设太阳能和风力发电场的气候效应,分析表明:（1）在西北地区大规模建立太阳能和风能发电场将导致局地地面净短波辐射增加,地表感热通量升高,近地面气温升高,增加新疆西部地区、河西走廊地区和我国黄淮等地的降水量,而华北部分地区降水减少。（2）地表反照率对气候的影响大于地表粗糙度对气候的影响,因此太阳能利用导致的气候效应大于风能利用的影响。（3）反照率改变导致低层形成气旋性环流,我国中部地区出现南风异常,西北地区产生异常东风;在高层形成反气旋环流,可以影响我国大部分地区。（4）当只在西北地区20%的面积上建立太阳能和风能发电场时,局地近地面气温不会产生明显的改变,河西走廊地区的降水稍有增加,环流的改变较弱,基本不会有显著的气候影响。