中国彩色钻石概要特点

彩色钻石是一种极端珍稀的矿产与宝石财富.本文较全面论述了中国已经发现的主要彩钻产地及矿体的简要地质特征,从原生矿和砂矿角度,分别论述了山东、辽宁、湖南、贵州等地的彩钻矿体地质特点,并总结了中国彩钻的主要特点:含量极低,晶体完整度不一,多含有包裹体,晶体蚀象发育,透明度高,以山东彩钻为代表的中国彩钻的颗粒度相对较大,可做高端宝石应用.本文还指出,中国彩钻的价值从根本上还没有得到发掘,市场价值从根本上尚未得到体现.     

The behaviour of platelets in natural diamonds and the development of a new mantle thermometer

Platelets are one of the most common defects occurring in natural diamonds but their behaviour has not previously been well understood. Recent technical advances, and a much improved understanding of the correct interpretation of the main infrared (IR) feature associated with platelets (Speich et al. 2017), facilitated a systematic study of platelets in 40 natural diamonds. Three different types of platelet behaviour were identified here. Regular diamonds show linear correlations between both B-centre concentrations and platelet density and also between platelet size and platelet density. Irregular diamonds display reduced platelet density due to platelet breakdown, anomalously large or small platelets and a larger platelet size distribution. These features are indicative of high mantle storage temperatures. Finally, a previously unreported category of subregular diamonds is defined. These diamonds experienced low mantle residence temperatures and show smaller than expected platelets. Combining the systematic variation in platelet density with temperatures of mantle storage, determined by nitrogen aggregation, we can demonstrate that platelet degradation proceeds at a predictable rate. Thus, in platelet-bearing diamonds where N aggregation is complete, an estimate of annealing temperature can now be made for the first time.     

大理岩断裂能与细观结构几何特征相关性

岩石在细观尺度上是由矿物颗粒胶结而成,除细观结构的力学特性外,其几何特征（颗粒界面网络结构和颗粒粒度分布）也对宏观断裂能具有一定的影响。为了探索这种几何特征与大理岩断裂能之间的相关性,从而进一步揭示岩石细观断裂机制,首先通过三点弯曲试验测定大理岩的断裂能,然后在试验后的三点弯试件断口处取岩石切片,进行电镜（SEM）扫描以获取岩石细观结构图像。利用图像处理技术获取岩石细观颗粒的界面网络图。通过对颗粒界面网络图分析,发现颗粒界面网络拓扑结构与颗粒粒度分布具有较强的分形特征。将二者分形维数与试件宏观断裂能相对比,发现它们之间具有很强的相关性。界面网络分形维数与宏观断裂能具有很强的二次相关性,而粒度分布维数与宏观断裂能之间具有较强的线性相关性。宏观断裂能随着两种分形维数的增大而增大。该研究结果揭示了宏观断裂能与岩石细观结构几何特征的相关性,加深了对宏观断裂能细观机制的理解。     

碳酸盐岩储层参数对微观渗流的影响

针对碳酸盐岩油藏孔隙大小的双峰分布特征,首先利用计算机模拟建立了描述不同孔隙特征的大孔隙网络模型和微孔隙网络模型,在此基础上提出一种耦合算法构建出的同时描述大孔隙和微孔隙特征的碳酸盐岩双孔隙网络模型;然后,基于侵入-逾渗理论,模拟双孔隙网络模型中油水两相流体的一次驱替和二次吸吮过程,并建立了毛细管压力和相对渗透率的求解模型;最后,通过调整双孔隙网络结构参数,模拟水湿油藏条件下碳酸盐岩储层参数对相对渗透率曲线的影响. 结果表明,随着微孔隙比例因子和平均配位数的增加,油相相对渗透率曲线升高;随着双孔隙半径比的增加,油相和水相相对渗透率曲线下降,这对碳酸盐岩油藏渗流机理研究有着重要的指导意义.      

低渗砂岩储层孔喉的分布特征及其差异性成因

应用筛析粒度、铸体薄片、图像孔隙、扫描电镜与高压压汞等方法,对苏北盆地沙埝地区E1f3和三塘湖盆地牛圈湖地区J2x两类不同低渗储层的孔喉类型和分布特征进行了分析对比,对其差异性成因进行了探讨。研究表明,E1f3储层孔隙类型主要为碳酸盐胶结物和长石溶孔,J2x储层主要为凝灰质和长石溶孔,前者溶蚀成因的粗大孔隙较多,而后者细小的晶间孔较多。E1f3储层喉道分布为溶蚀成因的粗单峰分布、压实或压实胶结混合成因的细单峰分布、管束状喉道的无峰分布,以及溶蚀成因与压实或压实胶结混合成因组成的双峰分布四类;J2x储层喉道为溶蚀成因的粗单峰分布、管束状喉道的细单峰分布,及管束状喉道与压实或压实胶结成因组成的双峰分布三类,未见溶蚀成因喉道与其他成因喉道组成的双峰分布。两区孔隙半径、喉道半径均随粒级变细呈减小趋势,平均孔隙半径也总是小于碎屑颗粒半径;在粒度相近的情况下,J2x储层孔隙、喉道半径均小于E1f3储层。E1f3储层较高的成分成熟度与结构成熟度和早期碳酸盐胶结作用使其在压实过程中保存了较大的原始粒间孔隙空间,且为后期溶蚀作用所扩大,牛圈湖地区J2x储层较高的塑性岩屑含量和同沉积期形成的凝灰质,使储层原始孔隙空间在压实过程中大量减少,后期溶蚀作用较弱。杂基对原始孔隙空间的充填程度及其与塑性岩屑共同造成的压实与溶蚀强度的差异,是造成两区目前孔隙结构差异的主要原因。     

Exploring the magnitude–frequency distribution: a cellular automata model for landslides

Landslide magnitude–frequency curves allow for the probabilistic characterization of regional landslide hazard. There is evidence that landslides exhibit self-organized criticality including the tendency to follow a power law over part of the magnitude–frequency distribution. Landslide distributions, however, also typically exhibit poor agreement with the power law at smaller sizes in a flattening of the slope known as rollover. Understanding the basis for this difference is critical if we are to accurately predict landslide hazard, risk or landscape denudation over large areas. One possible argument is that the magnitude–frequency distribution is dominated by physiographic controls whereby landslides tend to a larger size, and larger landslides are landscape limited according to a power law. We explore the physiographic argument using first a simple deterministic model and then a cellular automata model for watersheds in coastal British Columbia. The results compare favorably to actual landslide data: modeled landslides bifurcate at local elevation highs, deposit mass preferentially where the local slopes decrease, find routes in confined valley or channel networks, and, when sufficiently large, overwhelm the local topography. The magnitude–frequency distribution of both the actual landslides and the cellular automata model follow a power law for magnitudes higher than 10,000–20,000 m² and show a flattening of the slope for smaller magnitudes. Based on the results of both models, we argue that magnitude–frequency distributions, including both the rollover and the power law components, are a result of actual physiographic limitations related to slope, slope distance, and the distribution of mass within landslides. The cellular automata model uses simple empirically based rules that can be gathered for regions worldwide.     

Derivation of soil water retention curve incorporating electrochemical effects

Water retention of clayey soils with wide particle size distributions involves a combination of capillary and adsorbed layers effects that result into suction–saturation relations spanning over multiple decades of matric suction values. The present study provides a physics-based analysis to reproduce the water retention curve of such soils based solely on particle size distribution and porosity. The distribution of inter-particle pore sizes is inferred through a probabilistic treatment of the particle size distribution, which is then used, together with an assigned pore entry pressure, to estimate the inter-particle water volume at a given suction. The contribution to water content from adsorbed layers is also taken into account by considering the balance of electrochemical forces between water and clay material. The total water content is therefore found by summing up the contribution of inter-particle water, as well as adsorbed layers that form around clay particles and around the individual clay platelets. Comparisons with experimental results on nine different soil samples verify the capability of the model in accurately predicting the wide water retention curves without any prior calibration. Additional to capturing the essential features of the water retention curve with remarkable detail, the analytical model also provides insights into the relative contributions of capillary and adsorbed waters to the overall saturation at different suction regimes. Being based upon easily accessible information such as particle size distribution and void ratio, the model can therefore be considered as a substitute for costly and lengthy laboratory and in situ measurements of water retention curve.

     

Features of coated diamonds from the Snap Lake/King Lake kimberlite dyke, Slave craton, Canada, as revealed by optical topography

Confocal photoluminescence (PL) and local absorption spectroscopy were used to study the types and spatial distribution of point defects in coated diamonds, the input of which is about 30% in the Snap Lake deposit, Canada. Nitrogen concentration is on the level of several hundreds of ppm in the core, with a nitrogen-poor layer in its outer part, whereas in the coat it is usually several times higher as a result of fast growth. Nitrogen defects in the core are strongly aggregated with N3, B and B′-forms dominating, whereas A-defects are typical of the coat. The rounded shape of the coated diamonds is a result of the combined effect of partial dissolution of the octahedral core and the “abnormal” growth of the coat, which produces a fibrous structure. Analysis of PL and PL excitation spectra showed that structureless yellow-green PL of the coat is likely to be due to nickel-nitrogen complexes with their fine structure broadened in the strain fields. The presence of irradiation/annealing products such as vacancies V⁰ and nitrogen-vacancy complexes NV⁻, N₂V₂ shows that the diamonds studied have undergone post-growth ionizing irradiation with further low-temperature annealing in natural conditions.     

辐射处理金刚石的谱学研究及其意义

利用傅立叶显微红外光谱、紫外-可见-近红外吸收光谱、低温光致发光谱、拉曼光谱等4种谱学方法,对10颗辐照改色（R1-R10）的彩色天然金刚石进行了研究。利用可见吸收光谱和低温光致发光谱研究了金刚石石中的点缺陷产生系列的色心峰,指出在可见吸收光谱中除了有N3心吸收峰外,还可见595和637色心峰;在低温光致发光谱中发现有色心组合峰575,595和637等的出现,此组合峰与近红外区4929cm^-1处的H1b和5156cm^-1处的H1C色心峰共同存时,不仅是辐照处理绿色金刚石的鉴定证据,也是辐照处理各种彩色金刚石的重要的标志之一。本研究为辐射处理金刚石的鉴别和工艺流程提供了新的谱学依据和思路。     

Frequency distribution of river bed materials

The size distribution of river bed material plays an important role in the study of fluvial hydraulic processes. It is not always easy to sample the river bed material for the determination of its size distribution, but knowledge of the frequency distribution and of bed material sizes can be used to predict its size distribution. Therefore, data on bed material size distributions of 63 streams from 10 different countries have been analysed to determine the frequency distribution which can be best fitted to them. The log normal distribution cannot be fitted to the bed material mixtures when the entire range of sizes is considered. The method of power transformation is found to normalize these mixtures. Relationships have been proposed between the parameters of the normalization and the stream slope. These relations can be used to predict the size distribution of the river bed material.     

A generalization of distribution data for characterizing the performance of float-sink coal cleaning devices

The performance of float-sink coal cleaning devices customarily is characterized by a distribution curve, in which the percent of feed reporting to clean coal is plotted against specific gravity. For a given vessel and a given feed a family of distribution curves can be obtained, each having its own specific gravity of separation.This paper presents a method for combining these distribution curves at different specific gravities of separation, for a given coal cleaning vessel and a given feed, into a single, generalized distribution curve which is independent of the specific gravity of separation. This curve can be expressed in tabular form or it can be represented mathematically by an exponential type equation, known as a Weibull function.A different generalized distribution curve will be obtained for each of several different size fractions. A method is presented for utilizing these curves with feeds which encompass a broad spectrum of sizes.The well-known concepts of error area and probable error are extended to the generalized distribution curve. It is shown that the conventional probable error, and — under certain conditions — the conventional error area, are directly proportional to the specific gravity of separation for a given vessel and a given feed size.     

利用核磁共振T2分布构造毛管压力曲线的新方法

根据实验分析,提出一种新的构建方法,该方法对单峰T2 谱,用单一幂函数构造毛管压力曲线;利用核磁共振(NMR)T2 分布与孔隙结构直接相关,可以利用T2分布来构建毛管压力曲线.对双峰T2 谱则用两种不同的幂函数在小孔和大孔处分段构造毛管压力曲线.分别利用线性方法和幂函数方法构建毛管压力曲线,与实验测量得到的毛管压力曲线相对比,新方法对于毛管压力曲线的构造精度有明显改进.     

Comparison of Two Probability Distributions Used to Model Sizes of Undiscovered Oil and Gas Accumulations: Does the Tail Wag the Assessment?

Undiscovered oil and gas assessments are commonly reported as aggregate estimates of hydrocarbon volumes. Potential commercial value and discovery costs are, however, determined by accumulation size, so engineers, economists, decision makers, and sometimes policy analysts are most interested in projected discovery sizes. The lognormal and Pareto distributions have been used to model exploration target sizes. This note contrasts the outcomes of applying these alternative distributions to the play level assessments of the U.S. Geological Survey's 1995 National Oil and Gas Assessment. Using the same numbers of undiscovered accumulations and the same minimum, medium, and maximum size estimates, substitution of the shifted truncated lognormal distribution for the shifted truncated Pareto distribution reduced assessed undiscovered oil by 16% and gas by 15%. Nearly all of the volume differences resulted because the lognormal had fewer larger fields relative to the Pareto. The lognormal also resulted in a smaller number of small fields relative to the Pareto. For the Permian Basin case study presented here, reserve addition costs were 20% higher with the lognormal size assumption.     

鲕粒粒度特征及其指示意义

沉积物的粒度资料是确定沉积环境的重要依据,一直以来多应用在碎屑岩方面,较少用于碳酸盐岩的分析。以北京西山寒武系张夏组鲕粒石灰岩为研究对象,在野外实测、室内薄片粒度统计的基础上,通过分析鲕粒粒度参数、粒度频率曲线及概率累积曲线特征,明确了鲕粒粒度在分析鲕粒灰岩沉积环境上的重要作用,并建立了下苇甸鲕粒粒度特征与鲕粒滩在空间上的耦合关系。研究结果表明:鲕粒粒径大小、分选系数、峰度及概率累积曲线组分截点可以很好地反映鲕粒沉积水动力环境;一般情况下,水动力环境较稳定的间歇高能滩沉积的灰泥鲕粒石灰岩鲕粒粒径较小,分选好,峰度尖锐,频率曲线主要为单峰态,鲕粒以悬浮搬运为主;水动力较为动荡的高能滩沉积的亮晶鲕粒石灰岩鲕粒粒径较大,分选较差,峰度多为平坦、中等,频率曲线主要为多峰态,概率累积曲线多为一跳一悬两段式;鲕粒的粒径与鲕粒圈层类型密切相关,粒径较大的鲕粒多以同心鲕、同心放射鲕为主,粒径较小的鲕粒多为放射鲕。研究结果为分析颗粒石灰岩的沉积环境提供了理论和依据。     

Comparison of Two Methods Used to Model Shape Parameters of Pareto Distributions

Two methods are compared for estimating the shape parameters of Pareto field-size (or pool-size) distributions for petroleum resource assessment. Both methods assume mature exploration in which most of the larger fields have been discovered. Both methods use the sizes of larger discovered fields to estimate the numbers and sizes of smaller fields: (1) the tail-truncated method uses a plot of field size versus size rank, and (2) the log–geometric method uses data binned in field-size classes and the ratios of adjacent bin counts. Simulation experiments were conducted using discovered oil and gas pool-size distributions from four petroleum systems in Alberta, Canada and using Pareto distributions generated by Monte Carlo simulation. The estimates of the shape parameters of the Pareto distributions, calculated by both the tail-truncated and log–geometric methods, generally stabilize where discovered pool numbers are greater than 100. However, with fewer than 100 discoveries, these estimates can vary greatly with each new discovery. The estimated shape parameters of the tail-truncated method are more stable and larger than those of the log–geometric method where the number of discovered pools is more than 100. Both methods, however, tend to underestimate the shape parameter. Monte Carlo simulation was also used to create sequences of discovered pool sizes by sampling from a Pareto distribution with a discovery process model using a defined exploration efficiency (in order to show how biased the sampling was in favor of larger fields being discovered first). A higher (more biased) exploration efficiency gives better estimates of the Pareto shape parameters.     

Models of breakage and selection for particle size distributions

It is generally agreed that particle size distributions of sediments tend ideally to approximate the form of the lognormal probability law, but there is no single widely accepted explanation of how sedimentary processes generate the form of this law. Conceptually, and in its simplest form, sediment genesis involves the transformation of a parent rock mass into a particulate end product by processes that include size reduction and selection during weathering, transportation, and deposition. The many variables that operate simultaneously during this transformation can be shown to produce a distribution of particle sizes that approaches asymptotically the lognormal form when the effect of the variables is multiplicative. This was first shown by Kolmogorov (1941). Currently available models combine breakage and selection in differing degrees, but are similar in treating the processes as having multiplicative effects on particle sizes. The present paper, based on careful specification of the initial state, the nth breakage rule and the nth selection rule, leads to two stochastic models for particle breakage, and for both models the probability distributions of particle sizes are obtained. No attempt is made to apply these models to real world sedimentary processes, although this topic is touched upon in the closing remarks.     

Size-sorting during suspension transportation—lognormality and other characteristics

Grain size distributions of the suspended loads above a bed of bimodal size distribution (size range 2-00-0.04 mm) were studied in a laboratory flume at water velocities varying from 42 to 160 cm/s. With increase of velocity the phi (logarithmic) size distribution of the suspended particles (at 5-20 cm above the bed) changed from a strongly skewed to a nearly symmetrical, unimodal form (nearly lognormal) through an intermediate bimodal stage. At low velocity the skewness of the distribution changed from positive to negative with increase of height. The experiments indicate that lognormality of‘weight frequency’ distribution of grain sizes is a transitional feature, attained through size sorting within a critical range of velocity and height above a sand bed of a given composition. The observed changes in the size distribution patterns were effected by a differential rate of increase in weight in the different size classes in suspension with increase of flow velocity. The phenomenon could be explained by the equation of relative suspension concentration which relates the relative concentration of a suspended particle of a particular diameter to the flow velocity of the turbulent fluid and the height of suspension above the bed.     

A micromechanics model for molecular diffusion in materials with complex pore structure

Molecular diffusion in fully saturated porous materials is strongly influenced by the pore space, which, in general, is characterized by a complex topological structure. Hence, information on macroscopic diffusion properties requires up‐scaling of transport processes within nano‐pores and micro‐pores over several spatial scales. A new model in the framework of continuum micromechanics is proposed for predicting the effective molecular diffusivity in porous materials. Considering a representative volume element, characterizing a porous material without any information about the pore space microstructure complexity, the uniform flux is perturbed by recursively embedding shape information hierarchically in the form of the ESHELBY matrix‐inclusion morphology to obtain the effective diffusivity as a function of the recurrence level and the porosity. The model predicts a threshold value for the porosity, below which no molecular diffusion can occur because of the presence of isolated pore clusters that are not connected and unavailable for transport. The maximum porosity, below which no molecular transport is possible, is predicted as one‐third for spherical inclusions. The model allows for extensions to more complex morphologies of the inclusions. We also identify, that the effects of the micro‐structure on molecular transport are characterized by porosity dependent long‐range and short‐range interactions. The developed framework is extended to incorporate realistic pore size distributions across several spatial scales by means of a distribution function within the hierarchical homogenization scheme. Available experimental results assert the model predictions. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On the accuracy of fragment size measurement by image analysis in combination with some distribution functions

Summary  Size distributions of fragments of crushed rock in conveyor belts and of blasted rock in a muckpile obtained by sieving are compared with the size distributions obtained by digital image analysis of photographs of the same materials taken on-site. Several calculation methods are tested, based on the raw distribution of fragment areas and on the volume-transformed ones. The influence of the calibration of the system on the results and the performance of the system in a non-calibrated mode are evaluated. The capacity of some distributions (Rosin-Rammler, Swebrec and lognormal) to fit the data in the coarse region (where particles can be delineated, i.e. discriminated individually) and to extrapolate to the non-delineated fines (where particles cannot be outlined and their contour delineated) is assessed. The error between the sizes measured and the sizes of the reference distributions (determined by sieving) increases from the coarse to the fines region. The maximum error at a given size depends primarily on its value relative to the fines cut-off (FCO) of the image analysis. In general, at sizes greater than the FCO, where the system is able to delineate fragments reliably, both volume and surface-based, calibrated, calculations can determine the sizes with maximum error expectancy of about 30%. Below the FCO, only the calibrated, volume calculation maintains a maximum error of 30%, down to sizes of about one fourth the FCO, rapidly increasing for smaller sizes. Where the calibration is done based on data above the FCO, errors can be large below this point, in excess of 80% at sizes half the FCO. In the fines range (sizes smaller than 0.2 times the FCO) the maximum errors can be close to or greater than 100% for most of the calculations and function fittings. Of the distributions tested, all of them are acceptable at sizes above the FCO; below that, the Swebrec function seems to adapt better towards the fines than the Rosin-Rammler and lognormal. Correspondence: José A. Sanchidrián, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, E.T.S.I. Minas, Rios Rosas 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain     

On the frequency distribution of turbidite thickness

The frequency distribution of turbidite thickness records information on flow hydrodynamics, initial sediment volumes and source migration and is an important component of petroleum reservoir models. However, the nature of this thickness distribution is currently uncertain, with log‐normal or negative‐exponential frequency distributions and power‐law cumulative frequency distributions having been proposed by different authors. A detailed analysis of the Miocene Marnoso Arenacea Formation of the Italian Apennines shows that turbidite bed thickness and sand‐interval thickness within each bed have a frequency distribution comprising the sum of a series of log‐normal frequency distributions. These strata were deposited predominantly in a basin‐plain setting, and bed amalgamation is relatively rare. Beds or sand intervals truncated by erosion were excluded from this analysis. Each log‐normal frequency distribution characterizes bed or sand‐interval thickness for a given basal grain‐size or basal Bouma division. Measurements from the Silurian Aberystwyth Grits in Wales, the Cretaceous Great Valley Sequence in California and the Permian Karoo Basin in South Africa show that this conclusion holds for sequences of disparate age and variable location. The median thickness of these log‐normal distributions is positively correlated with basal grain‐size. The power‐law exponent relating the basal grain‐size and median thickness is different for turbidites with a basal A or B division and those with only C, D and E divisions. These two types of turbidite have been termed ‘thin bedded’ and ‘thick bedded’ by previous workers. A change in the power‐law exponent is proposed to be related to: (i) a transition from viscous to inertial settling of sediment grains; and (ii) hindered settling at high sediment concentrations. The bimodal thickness distribution of ‘thin‐bedded’ and ‘thick‐bedded’ turbidites noted by previous workers is explained as the result of a change in the power‐law exponent. This analysis supports the view that A and B divisions were deposited from high‐concentration flow components and that distinct grain‐size modes undergo different depositional processes. Summation of log‐normal frequency distributions for thin‐ and thick‐bedded turbidites produces a cumulative frequency distribution of thickness with a segmented power‐law trend. Thus, the occurrence of both log‐normal and segmented power‐law frequency distributions can be explained in a holistic fashion. Power‐law frequency distributions of turbidite thickness have previously been linked to power‐law distributions of earthquake magnitude or volumes of submarine slope failure. The log‐normal distribution for a given grain‐size class observed in this study suggests an alternative view, that turbidite thickness is determined by the multiplicative addition of several randomly distributed parameters, in addition to the settling velocity of the grain‐sizes present.