Influence of shear velocity on frictional characteristics of rock surface

Understanding the fundamental issues related with the effect of shear velocity on frictional characteristics at the interface of rock surfaces is an important issue. In this paper, strain-rate dependence on friction is investigated in relation to sliding behaviour under normal load. The phenomenon of stick-slip of granite and shaly sandstone with a tribometer at constant rate of strain under normal loads was observed.     

An experimental approach for determination of the Weibull homogeneity index of rock or rock-like materials

Acta Geotechnica - The spatial variation of the physical–mechanical properties of rock or rock-like materials is an intrinsic characteristic of the materials induced by multiscale material...     

The initiation and linkage of surface fractures above a buried strike-slip fault: An experimental approach

Surface fractures in the overburdened sedimentary rocks, formed above a deep-seated basement fault, often provide important information about the kinematics of the underlying master fault. It has already been established that these surface fractures dynamically evolve and link one another with progressive displacement on the master fault below. In the present study, two different series of riedel-type experiments were carried out with clay analogue models under different boundary conditions viz., (i) heterogeneous simple shear of the cover rocks above a buried strike slip fault (wrench system) and (ii) heterogeneous simple shear with a component of shear-normal compression of the overburden package above a basement fault (transpressional system), to observe the initiation and linkage of surface fractures with varying T′ (where T′ = thickness of the overburden normalized with respect to the width of the master fault). In the wrench system, Riedel (R) shears were linked by principal displacement (Y) shears at early stages (shear strain of 0.8 to 1) in thin (2 < T′ < 18) models and finally (at a minimum shear strain of 1.4) gave rise to a through-going fault parallel to the basement fault without development of any other fracture. Conjugate Riedel (R′) shears develop only within the thicker (T′ > 18) clay models at a minimum shear strain of 0.7. With increasing deformation (at a minimum shear strain of 1.2) two R′ shears were joined by an R shear and finally opened up to make a sigmoidal vein with an asymmetry antithetic to the major fault-movement sense. Under transpression, the results were similar to that of heterogeneous simple shear for layers 2 < T′ < 15. In layers of intermediate thickness (15 < T′ < 25) early formed high angle R shears were cross cut by low angle R shears (at a minimum shear strain of 0.5 and shortening of 0.028) and “Riedel-within-Riedel” shears were formed within thick (T′ > 25) models (at minimum shear strain of 0.7 and shortening of 0.1), with marked angularity of secondary fault zone with the master fault at depth.     

基于多参量归一化的花岗岩巷道岩爆预测试验研究

通过室内模拟花岗岩巷道岩爆试验,基于线性函数转换的归一化算法,将试验中获得的声发射场和红外温度场等多参量进行归一化处理,在分析其原始曲线特征的基础上,分析各参量在同一尺度下的演化特征,综合研究花岗岩巷道岩爆前兆。研究结果表明:声发射事件率、声发射能率、最高和最低红外辐射温度均适合作为岩爆灾害预测的主要参数。岩爆发生过程中各参量经过归一化处理,在统一尺度下能够快速、有效地识别岩爆发生的前兆。声发射能量加速释放是岩爆发生的早期预警信息;声发射平静期可作为岩爆灾害预警与采取控制措施的关键时期;最低辐射温度突降和最高辐射温度突增表明岩爆随时都有可能发生,这是岩爆发生的征兆。试验结果为岩爆灾害预测研究提供了新的方法和依据。     

活动大陆边缘花岗岩类演化-以福州复式岩体为例

中国东南部处于扬子地块、印度板块和太平洋板块的中间地区,位于亚洲东部大陆边缘的最南段,是中生代以来欧亚板块与太平洋板块相互作用非常活跃的区域.本文通过对产在活动大陆边缘的福州复式岩体的花岗岩类中的锆石进行LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年,得到早期的涧田花岗闪长岩、中期的丹阳二长花岗岩一福州钾长花岗岩和晚期的魁歧晶洞碱性...     

Estimation of the generalized covariance function: II. A response surface approach

A procedure is proposed that employs first-moment estimation (kriging), cross-validation, and response surface analysis to estimate parameters of a generalized covariance function. Results from application of this procedure to two data sets are given.     

An experimental determination of the true uniaxial stress-strain behavior of brittle rock

SummaryAn Experimental Determination of the True Uniaxial Stress-Strain Behavior of Brittle Rock Results are presented of an experimental study of the behavior of six rock types deformed under uniaxial compression into their respective post-failure regions. Based on the observation that a rock sample in a post-failure state can be considered to be composed of broken and unbroken rock and assuming that the reduction in load-bearing capability of rock in the post-failure region is due to a reduction of the effective cross-sectional area of the specimen resulting from the growth of large cracks within the rock sample, we show that there is a maximum true stress that the unfractured solid rock can sustain without inelastic deformation. This stress is constant and is defined to be the true failure strength of the rock. The value of this stress is calculated by dividing the force on the rock sample at any point along the post-failure curve by the true load-bearing cross-sectional area of the rock sample at that point. Theoretical and experimental techniques are developed which allow an estimate of the true load-bearing area of the rock sample at any point along the post-failure curve of the sample. For the rock types used in the study, which were deformed to preselected positions along their respective post-failure curves and with the assumption that the fractured rock carried none of the applied load, the two techniques of measuring the effective load-bearing area give results which are equivalent.

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ZusammenfassungExperimentelle Bestimmung des wahren Spannungs-Dehnungs-Verhaltens von sprödem Gestein Es wird über Ergebnisse experimenteller Studien über das Verhalten von sechs verschiedenen Gesteinen berichtet, welche unter einachsigem Druck im Nach-Bruch-Bereich deformiert wurden. Aufgrund der Beobachtung, daß eine Gesteinsprobe im Nach-Bruch-Bereich als aus brüchigem und gebrochenem Gestein zusammengesetzt betrachtet werden kann und unter der Annahme, daß die Abminderung der Belastbarkeit des Gesteins im Nach-Bruch-Bereich durch die Verringerung der wirksamen Querschnittsfläche der Probe infolge des Wachsens von großen Rissen in der Gesteinsprobe verursacht ist, wird gezeigt, daß es eine maximale wahre Spannung gibt, welche das ungebrochene, feste Gestein ohne inelastische Deformation ertragen kann. Diese Spannung ist konstant und wird als wahre Bruchfestigkeit des Gesteins angesprochen. Die Größe dieser Spannung errechnet sich durch Division der auf die Gesteinsprobe an irgendeinem Punkt der Nach-Bruch-Kurve ausgeübten Kraft durch die wahre, Belastung tragende Querschnittsfläche der Gesteinsprobe an diesem Punkt. Es wurden theoretische und experimentelle Techniken entworfen, welche eine Schätzung der Verminderung der Belastungsfläche an irgendeiner Stelle längs der Nach-Bruch-Kurve der Probe erlauben. Für Gesteinstypen, welche in diesen Untersuchungen benützt wurden und welche an im Voraus gewählten Stellen längs der Nach-Bruch-Kurve deformiert wurden, gaben unter der Annahme, daß das gebrochene Gestein nichts von der aufgebrachten Belastung trug, die beiden Techniken zur Messung der tatsächlich lasttragenden, wirksamen Fläche gleiche Resultate.

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Résumé On présente les résultats d'une étude expérimentale du comportement de six types de roches chargées en compression simple dans leur domaine respectif de déformation après la rupture. Si l'on remarque qu'un échantillon de roche après la rupture peut être considéré comme composé de roche cassée et de roche non cassée, et en supposant que la réduction de résistance dans le domaine après la rupture est due à la réduction de la section droite intacte de l'échantillon, réduction résultant de la croissance de grandes fissures dans l'éprouvette, on montre qu'il existe une contrainte vraie maximale que la roche peut supporter sans déformation permanente. Cette contrainte est constante et est réputée être la résistance vraie à la rupture. La valeur de cette contrainte est calculée en divisant la force sur l'échantillon en chaque point de la courbe effort-déformation après la rupture, par la section droite supportant alors véritablement la charge. Des techniques théorique et expérimentale sont développées, qui permettent d'estimer la surface portante vraie de l'échantillon en tout point de la courbe après la rupture. Pour les types de roches utilisées dans cette étude, qui furent déformées à des états pré-déterminés du domaine après la rupture, et avec l'hypothèse que la roche fracturée ne supportait plus aucune contrainte, les deux méthodes de mesures de la section portante ont donné des résultats équivalents.

     

Investigating the removal of ethylbenzene from aqueous solutions using modified graphene oxide: application of response surface methodology

This research focused on the application of response surface methodology (RSM) for the removal of ethylbenzene by the graphene oxide grafted with polymethyl vinyl ketone and aniline (GO-MVK-ANI) from wastewater. The adsorbent was prepared through polymerization of graphene oxide with methyl vinyl ketone using ammonium persulfate initiator and further modification by aniline. The synthesized material was characterized via Fourier transform infrared resonance spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller analysis. RSM was used to minimize the number of experiments and investigate the effect of three selected parameters (contact time, initial pH and adsorbent dose) on the removal efficiency of ethylbenzene. Additionally, the affecting parameters were optimized based on the selected target (ethylbenzene removal efficiency). The results show that 73% ethylbenzene could be adsorbed with initial ethylbenzene concentration of 20 mg/l under the optimum conditions (the contact time of 11 min, pH of 5.64 and adsorbent dose of 3.75 g/l). In this paper, high R ²-value (97.18%) for ethylbenzene removal and a good agreement with adjusted R ²-value (94.65%) indicated that the model was successful and the results demonstrated a reasonable proportion of the experimental and the predicted results.     

An experimental approach to the palynology of cave deposits

Surface sediment, speleothems, and bat guano from two adjacent, topographically different cave sites in eastern Spain have been studied palynologically to elucidate the potential of cave sediments for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. A cave opening with a large entrance and constant width presented far fewer problems of alteration in the pollen assemblages than a sac‐like cave opening with a constricted entrance. Pollen concentration is linked primarily to the amount of pollen input rather than to the result of post‐depositional alteration. Sampling should be undertaken away from parietal and rear areas and avoiding moisture zones. Lateral differences in the pollen spectra indicate that sampling should be on the basis of a multiple‐profile approach and selection of dry rather than wet sediments. If these procedures are followed, within‐cave sediments can realistically reflect not only local but also regional vegetation of the site. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of different wall roughness on the frictional behavior of rock joints

Rock discontinuities play a crucial and critical role on the deformational and failure behavior of the rock mass. In most investigations, both the surfaces of the rock joints are considered to have same roughness. But, in nature, the walls of a fresh joint is only expected to be complimentary and to have same roughness. Weathered and water percolating rock joint is most likely to develop different surface roughness on the two opposite walls. So, the shear strength and frictional response behavior derived from the single joint roughness coefficient (JRC) assumption cannot be used in such a condition. To address this shortcoming, we have prepared sandstone blocks with different surface roughness and conducted experiments in a tribometer. The static friction, shear stiffness and coefficient-of-friction of the joint surfaces were calculated and their changes with increasing normal load were noted. One of the major findings of this paper is that, shear strength of the joints may not have a direct correlation with the increasing JRC value of the individual joint walls. Hence, some of the joint walls having higher cumulative JRCs were found to show lower shear strength than those with lowers roughness. This is because, the opposing walls of such joints are not anymore complementary and the frictional resistance is completely controlled by the height and contact area of the asperites.     

An experimental study of amphibole stability in low-pressure granitic magmas and a revised Al-in-hornblende geobarometer

We report new experimental data on the composition of magmatic amphiboles synthesised from a variety of granite (sensu lato) bulk compositions at near-solidus temperatures and pressures of 0.8–10 kbar. The total aluminium content (Al^tot) of the synthetic calcic amphiboles varies systematically with pressure (P), although the relationship is nonlinear at low pressures (<2.5 kbar). At higher pressures, the relationship resembles that of other experimental studies, which suggests of a general relationship between Al^tot and P that is relatively insensitive to bulk composition. We have developed a new Al-in-hornblende geobarometer that is applicable to granitic rocks with the low-variance mineral assemblage: amphibole + plagioclase (An_15–80) + biotite + quartz + alkali feldspar + ilmenite/titanite + magnetite + apatite. Amphibole analyses should be taken from the rims of grains, in contact with plagioclase and in apparent textural equilibrium with the rest of the mineral assemblage at temperatures close to the haplogranite solidus (725 ± 75 °C), as determined from amphibole–plagioclase thermometry. Mean amphibole rim compositions that meet these criteria can then be used to calculate P (in kbar) from Al^tot (in atoms per formula unit, apfu) according to the expression:

$${\textit{P }}\left( {\text{kbar}} \right) = 0.5 + 0.331\left( 8 \right) \times {\text{Al}}^{\text{tot}} + 0.995\left( 4 \right) \times \left( {{\text{Al}}^{\text{tot}} } \right)^{2}$$

This expression recovers equilibration pressures of our calibrant dataset, comprising both new and published experimental and natural data, to within ±16 % relative uncertainty. An uncertainty of 10 % relative for a typical Al^tot value of 1.5 apfu translates to an uncertainty in pressure estimate of 0.5 kbar, or 15 % relative. Thus the accuracy of the barometer expression is comparable to the precision with which near-solidus amphibole rim composition can be characterised.

     

影响花岗质石材抛光性因素的研究

研究表明,花岗石的抛光光泽度与岩石中各种矿物的光学性质密切相关,同时受岩石的结构、构造、风化变色以及岩石中发育的节理等多种因素的影响.随着风化变色度及节理密度的增加,抛光光泽度出现下降的趋势.因而,有关岩石材料抛光性的岩石学、风化岩石学以及构造地质学的研究是石材评价和开发中的重要问题.     

An analytical technique for rapid determination of surface rock density

Computation of the coefficient of correlation between the Bouguer reduced gravity and the ground relief apparently helps minimize the subjectivity inherent in the Nettleton’s method of surface rock density determination. The ideal density is the one that results in zero correlation between them. The iterative procedure in sweeping the calculations through the range of densities chosen can be avoided by taking advantage of the linear relationship between this coefficient and the density. Linear interpolation is therefore suggested to arrive at the ideal density. The suggested procedure consequently consists of correlation coefficient computations for the two-density extremum values within which the density of the surface rock formations is expected to lie. The computer program for this method is also presented. The procedure involved and the efficacy of the method are illustrated with some practical analyses.     

The role of rock joint frictional strength in the containment of fracture propagation

The fracturing phenomenon within the reservoir environment is a complex process that is controlled by several factors and may occur either naturally or by artificial drivers. Even when deliberately induced, the fracturing behaviour is greatly influenced by the subsurface architecture and existing features. The presence of discontinuities such as joints, artificial and naturally occurring faults and interfaces between rock layers and microfractures plays an important role in the fracturing process and has been known to significantly alter the course of fracture growth. In this paper, an important property (joint friction) that governs the shear behaviour of discontinuities is considered. The applied numerical procedure entails the implementation of the discrete element method to enable a more dynamic monitoring of the fracturing process, where the joint frictional property is considered in isolation. Whereas fracture propagation is constrained by joints of low frictional resistance, in non-frictional joints, the unrestricted sliding of the joint plane increases the tendency for reinitiation and proliferation of fractures at other locations. The ability of a frictional joint to suppress fracture growth decreases as the frictional resistance increases; however, this phenomenon exacerbates the influence of other factors including in situ stresses and overburden conditions. The effect of the joint frictional property is not limited to the strength of rock formations; it also impacts on fracturing processes, which could be particularly evident in jointed rock masses or formations with prominent faults and/or discontinuities.     

岩质边坡表层黏性客土抗裂特性试验研究

客土喷播是当前对于裸露岩质边坡生态修复的一种常用技术。然而,边坡表层黏性客土在干旱的气候条件下,内部水分大量流失将容易产生干缩、开裂现象,进而影响坡面的整体稳定性,以及表面植被的生长。本文针对边坡表层黏性客土开裂问题,通过改变土体厚度,以及制备不同聚氨酯（PU）浓度的高分子复合黏性客土,开展一系列室内蒸发试验,以分析土体表面裂隙发育特征,并结合数字图像处理技术（PCAS）,对裂隙网络的几何形态进行定量分析,进一步探究土体厚度和高分子添加剂浓度对其裂隙发育的影响。     

On the interaction of pure and impure supercritical CO2 with rock forming minerals in saline aquifers: An experimental geochemical approach

The aim of this experimental study was to evaluate and compare the geochemical impact of pure and impure CO₂ on rock forming minerals of possible CO₂ storage reservoirs. This geochemical approach takes into account the incomplete purification of industrial captured CO₂ and the related effects during injection, and provides relevant data for long-term storage simulations of this specific greenhouse gas. Batch experiments were conducted to investigate the interactions of supercritical CO₂, brine and rock-forming mineral concentrates (albite, microcline, kaolinite, biotite, muscovite, calcite, dolomite and anhydrite) using a newly developed experimental setup. After up to 42 day (1000 h) experiments using pure and impure supercritical CO₂ the dissolution and solution characteristics were examined by XRD, XRF, SEM and EDS for the solid, and ICP–MS and IC for the fluid reactants, respectively. Experiments with mixtures of supercritical CO₂ (99.5 vol.%) and SO₂ or NO₂ impurities (0.5 vol.%) suggest the formation of H₂SO₄ and HNO₃, reflected in pH values between 1 and 4 for experiments with silicates and anhydrite and between 5 and 6 for experiments with carbonates. These acids should be responsible for the general larger amount of cations dissolved from the mineral phases compared to experiments using pure CO₂. For pure CO₂ a pH of around 4 was obtained using silicates and anhydrite, and 7–8 for carbonates. Dissolution of carbonates was observed after both pure and impure CO₂ experiments. Anhydrite was corroded by approximately 50 wt.% and gypsum precipitated during experiments with supercritical CO₂ + NO₂. Silicates do not exhibit visible alterations during all experiments but released an increasing amount of cations in the reaction fluid during experiments with impure CO₂. Nonetheless, precipitated secondary carbonates could not be identified.     

Probabilistic analysis of underground rock excavations using response surface method and SORM

Probabilistic analysis of underground rock excavations is performed using response surface method and SORM, in which the quadratic polynomial with cross terms is used to approximate the implicit limit state surface at the design point. The response surface is found using an iterative algorithm and the probability of failure is evaluated using the first-order and the second-order reliability method (FORM/SORM). Independent standard normal variables in U-space are chosen as basic random variables and transformed into correlated non-normal variables in the original space of random variables for constructing the response surface. The proposed method is first illustrated for a circular tunnel with analytical solutions considering Mohr–Coulomb (M–C) and Hoek–Brown (H–B) yield criteria separately. The failure probability with respect to the plastic zone criterion and the tunnel convergence criterion are estimated from FORM/SORM and compared to those obtained from Monte Carlo Simulations. The results show that the support pressure has great influence on the failure probability of the two failure modes. For the M–C model, the hypothesis of uncorrelated friction angle and cohesion will generate higher non-performance probability in comparison to the case of negatively correlated shear strength parameters. Reliability analyses involving non-normal distributions are also investigated. Finally, an example of a horseshoe-shaped highway tunnel is presented to illustrate the feasibility and validity of the proposed method for practical applications where numerical procedures are needed to calculate the performance function values.     

岩石表层光释光测年技术再优化以获得岩石实际侵蚀速率

近年来新提出的岩石表层光释光测年技术为研究基岩在十年-万年时间尺度上的侵蚀速率提供了一种可能。该方法基本原理是暴露于太阳光下的岩石表层光释光信号会被逐渐晒退,其信号晒退的深度与岩石暴露时间以及岩石的侵蚀速率相关。因此,利用岩石表层残留光释光信号与信号深度、暴露时间以及侵蚀速率的定量关系,可以推算出该岩石的暴露年龄或者侵蚀速率。虽然前人已通过理论公式推导,为获取漂砾或基岩的稳态侵蚀速率提供了一种途径,但是该途径获得的稳态侵蚀速率为岩石的最大可达侵蚀速率,不一定是实际侵蚀速率。本次研究对前人的方法提出了两项优化和改进：第一,在岩石表层光释光测年技术中,对半饱和深度的误差提出了一种量化方式,而半饱和深度误差的量化为进一步比较不同岩石的光释光信号晒退程度提供了便利;第二,通过将样品的半饱和深度、误差和宇宙成因核素¹⁰Be年龄投影到不同侵蚀速率下半饱和深度与时间的关系模拟图中,进而获得样品的实际侵蚀速率。因此,优化后的方法可以有效地避免侵蚀速率的高估,为获得岩石十年-万年时间尺度上的实际侵蚀速率提供了一种新的可行途径。