SCATTERING PHASE MATRICES OF ICE CRYSTALS WITH HEXAGONAL PRISM AND TRIANGULAR PYRAMID FORM—A VECTOR RAY TRACING METHOD

The work presented previously by the authors(Cai and Liou,1982)has been extended in this paper.By making use of our improved model the calculations on scattering phase matrices of hexagonal prismice crystals(HPIC)have been conducted for monodisperse and polydisperse systems.Compared with themodel of Cai and Liou,the required computational quantity is decreased by about two orders of magni-tude and the errors of results are less for the new model.Meanwhile,the scattering phase matrices of triangularpyramid ice crystals(TPIC)are also computed in the paper,and the comparison between the scatterings of thetwo forms of ice crystals is performed.     

六棱柱和三棱锥冰晶的散射相矩阵——一种矢量射线追踪方法

本文发展了作者过去的工作(Cai-Liou),利用改进后的数值模式对六角柱冰晶(匀谱和非匀谱)的散射相矩阵进行了计算,所需计算量比Cai-Liou的约小二个量级,且本文的数值模式的结果误差较小。同时,对三棱锥冰晶的散射相矩阵,本文也进行了计算,并与六角冰晶的结果进行了比较。     

Effects of horizontal orientation on the radiative properties of ice clouds

Transfer of radiation through cirrus consisting of non-sphericalice crystals randomly oriented in a plane (2D model) is solved by using the discrete-ordinates method. The model is employed to determine the radiative flux properties and the intensity distribution of cirrus for both solar and thermal infrared ra-diation. Comparison of the 2D cloud model with the conventional 3D cloud model, i.e., randomly oriented in a three- dimensional space, shows that the preferential orientation of ice crystals has a substantial effect on the cloud solar albedo. The difference in the cloud albedo computed from the two models can be as large as 8% for a cirrus of 2 km thickness. On the thermal infrared side, although the flux emission for cirrus is less affected by the orientation of ice crystals, the difference in the upward radiance using 2D and 3D models is also significant.     

THE STUDY OF HIGH EFFICIENT AgI PYROTECHNICS AND THEIR NUCLEATING PROPERTIES

Two kinds of high efficient Agl pyrotechnics BR-88-5 and BR-91-Y have been developed.The tests in the cloudchamber show that the AgI ice nucleating effectiveness can reach up to 10~(15)/g,and the BR-91-Y has even higher icenucleating rate.Two kinds of foreign AgI pyrotechnics have been made according to the given formulations and alsotested in the cloud chamber for comparison.X-ray diffraction analysis for the aerosols produced by burning BR-91-Yshows that AgI in acrosols still retains the hexagonal crystal form and the lattice parameters are smaller than those ofpure AgI and other AgI composite nuclei,and closer to ice.Combining with the other tests,the reasons for the high effi-ciency of BR-91-Y have been discussed.     

THE STUDY OF HIGH EFFICIENT AgI PYROTECHNICS AND THEIR NUCLEATING PROPERTIES*

Two kinds of high efficient Agl pyrotechnics BR-88-5 and BR-91-Y have been developed.The tests in the cloud chamber show that the AgI ice nucleating effectiveness can reach up to 10¹⁵/g,and the BR-91-Y has even higher ice nucleating rate.Two kinds of foreign AgI pyrotechnics have been made according to the given formulations and also tested in the cloud chamber for comparison.X-ray diffraction analysis for the aerosols produced by burning BR-91-Y shows that AgI in acrosols still retains the hexagonal crystal form and the lattice parameters are smaller than those of pure AgI and other AgI composite nuclei,and closer to ice.Combining with the other tests,the reasons for the high efficiency of BR-91-Y have been discussed.     

地基GPS遥感大气水汽总量中的"静力延迟"和"湿延迟"

介绍了静力延迟和湿延迟概念的由来,推导了由对流层延迟计算水汽总量的一般公式;与李延兴等提出的新模型进行了对比,对其相应的观点提出讨论意见.认为国际上通用的AN模型比较严密地求解了对流层大气水汽总量,不存在与"真值"相比偏小的问题.     

全球海洋CFC-11吸收对传输速度的敏感性

本文在中国科学院大气物理研究所发展的全球海洋模式(LICOM)中使用五个不同的海气交换的气体 传输速度公式对CFC-11(一氟三氯甲烷)在海洋中的分布和吸收做了模拟。讨论了不同气体传输速度的差异, 发现差异最大的两个公式得到的全球年平均传输速度相差81%。对CFC-11的海表浓度分布、海气通量、水柱总量、海水累积吸收量以及在大洋断面的垂直浓度分布进行了分析。分析结果显示, 使用Liss and Merlivat (1986) 的传输速度公式的试验在海气通量和海洋吸收总量的模拟上均小于其他试验, Nightingale et al. (2000)、Ho et al. (2006) 和Sweeney et al. (2007) 等的公式虽然全球年平均值相近, 但在高风速地区Nightingale et al. (2000) 公式的传输速度要小于后两者, 导致了使用该公式的试验模拟结果在主吸收区和存储区的强度比后二者偏小。Wanninkhof (1992) 的公式在形式上与Ho et al. (2006) 以及Sweeney et al. (2007) 的公式一致, 但在系数上存在差别, 这使得模拟的水柱总量在南大洋的分布明显好于其他试验, 尽管其最大值仍比观测资料略小。在海洋累积吸收量的计算上, 使用Wanninkhof (1992) 传输速度公式得到的模拟结果比观测资料小8%左右。计算了Liss and Merlivat (1986) 和Wanninkhof (1992) 的传输速度公式模拟的单年吸收量相对差, 其总体上一直保持持续下降的趋势, 到2007年仅为2%。从该相对差变化趋势看, 在最初的前10年, 海气CFC-11交换通量对海气交换传输速度的敏感性更强, 而在更长时间的模拟上, 海洋对CFC-11的吸收则更依赖于物理模式的通风速率。通过对CFC-11垂直断面分布的分析可知, 不同的传输速度在主要吸收区的不同导致了一定的垂直分布差异。基于本文的结果可以认为Wanninkhof (1992) 的海气气体传输速度公式更适合本模式对CFC-11的模拟。     

An explicit approach to microphysics in MC2

Abstract

An explicit microphysics scheme, including warm rain and ice‐phase processes, has been incorporated into the Canadian Mesoscale Compressible Community Model (MC2). Three equations for cloud water mixing ratio, rain water mixing ratio, and ice or snow mixing ratio are solved explicitly. The hydrometeor mass loading term is also included. For the single ice category, a generalized gamma size distribution is assumed and a new formulation by Meyers et al. (1992) is used to predict the ice concentration.

A numerical simulation of the ERICA IOP2 cyclone shows that the scheme is efficient. Despite running at a relatively large time step, the scheme succeeded in capturing the deepening rates and the mesoscale features of the cyclone. The distribution of cloud and precipitation is in good agreement with satellite observations. Comparison with other implicit schemes available in MC2 show comparable performance in terms of deepening rate and precipitation rate. However, the explicit scheme generates mesoscale features in better agreement with observations.     

一次副热带高压后部层状云降水中山区层状云宏微物理结构探测分析

利用2010年8月18日副热带高压后部层状云降水中山区层状云的飞机穿云观测资料,结合雷达、卫星云图及天气图等资料,详细分析了此次高后降水中山区层状云的宏观特征、微物理结构,并对降水形成机制进行初步探讨.结果表明:此个例由两层云构成,上层为冷云,下层主要为暖云;冷层粒子图像显示主要以板状为主,平板柱状、柱状和霰粒为辅,冰粒子的聚合体在整个冷层都有出现;降水形成机制为播种—喂养机制,冷云中观测到丛集和淞附现象,其中淞附现象主要发生在冷云的中下部靠近融化层附近.     

ON THE ICE NUCLEATION BY CONTACT ON THE INNER AND OUTER LAYER OF A WATER DROP*

Nucleation of ice by contact takes place when an aerosol particle collides with a surface of supercooled water drop.Aerosol particle may either bounce off the water surface or be captured on it.McCully et al.(1956) and Rosinski et al.(1963) have shown that capture of hydrophilic particles was four times larger than of hydrophobic ones.Hydrophobic aerosol particles will nucleate ice preferentially during the brief time of contact when they bounce off the surface.     

对非球形冰晶94 GHz云雷达后向散射和衰减的研究

针对94 GHz毫米波云雷达的数据处理,基于离散偶极子近似法(DDA)计算了几种非球形冰晶的后向散射及衰减效率,探讨了不同冰云模型下冰云的雷达反射率因子(Z_e)和衰减系数(k)及冰水含量(IWC,记作W)的关系。结果表明:(1)形状对冰晶的散射及衰减效率与粒子大小有关。(2)在实际的冰云中,将六角形冰晶和椭圆冰晶看做同体积的球形粒子将低估其衰减和后向散射。将聚合物冰晶看做等体积球形,将高估其后向散射及衰减,子弹花冰晶的后向散射与同体积的球形相比有减小也有增大,但是衰减比同体积球形的小。(3)冰云模型对Z_e-k、Z_e-W关系具有较大影响,假设滴谱相同的条件下,得到了具体冰云模型下对应Z_e-k、Z_e-W关系的系数。这些探讨为我国W波段云雷达的数据处理提供了参考。     

A numerical study of the effects of cloud droplets on the diffusional growth of snow crystals

We studied the effect of supercooled cloud droplets on the diffusional growth rate of isolated ice plates and ice columns by approximating the shape of a plate as an oblate spheroid and a column as a prolate spheroid. This work is an extension of the pioneering work of Marshall and Palmer [Marshall, J.S. and Langleben, M.P., A theory of snow-crystal habit and growth, J. Met., 11, 104–120, 1954] who studied the influence of cloud droplets on the growth rate of spherical ice crystals. The vapour density field for oblate and prolate spheroids was obtained by solving Helmholtz's equation with the assumption that the vapour at the ice surface had the equilibrium value. As result, it was possible to calculate separately the temporal evolution of the axis length and the mass of the snow crystals.The results indicate that the presence of cloud droplets around the snow crystal can increase by around 10% of the ice growth rate relative to an environment free of cloud droplets. The magnitude of the growth enhancement is proportional to the liquid water content. The results also corroborate the importance of the shape and aspect ratio on the crystal growth. A general mass growth rate equation for diffusional growth was found, which incorporates effects of cloud droplets and crystal shape through the size and aspect ratio of the snow crystal.     

不同环境温度下冰云粒子的单次散射参量

本文提出了直接Stokes参量变换的射线追踪方案,优化了作者过去建立的求解六角冰晶粒子散射的射线追踪模式.在冰晶有吸收(折射指数为复数)的情况下,新模式采用了有效折射指数处理粒子内的非单色折射波.其次,新模式还引入了有效单次散射参量,消除了来自几何透射线的前向δ散射效应.最后,根据不同环境温度下的冰云中冰晶粒子的粒径谱分布,本文计算了粒径谱积分平均的3D随机取向六角冰晶粒子的单次散射参量.文中给出的冰晶粒子单次散射参量的数值,对研究冰云辐射特性将有一定参考价值.     

Thunderstorm charging: Laboratory experiments clarified

Further laboratory experiments of thunderstorm charging by ice crystal collisions with riming graupel pellets have led to results that may help account for a major difference between two independent studies reported earlier. The problem concerns values of the cloud liquid water content required to change the sign of graupel charging. The present work has noted and investigated differences in the techniques of cloud nucleation used in the two studies. In one set of measurements by Takahashi, ice crystals are nucleated continuously in a supercooled water droplet cloud, while in the other experiments by Jayaratne et al. and Saunders et al., the droplet cloud is nucleated only briefly. These two nucleation methods lead to differences in the mass of cloud particles collected on a sampling probe used to determine the liquid water content of the cloud. In the continuous nucleation case, the probe collects sufficient numbers of ice crystals to lead to a substantial overestimate of the cloud liquid water content.     

利用探空资料计算水汽压

利用L波段探空资料的相对湿度值及温度值计算水汽压时,由于探空测量的是相对于水面的相对湿度,只能用相对于水面的饱和水汽压公式来计算,低温时用相对于冰面的饱和水汽压公式计算水汽压可能不正确.对水相和冰相的不同处理所带来的偏差进行了分析和讨论.以CIMO规定的温度-45℃和0℃为界,分别计算了用相对于冰面的饱和水汽压公式和相对于水面的饱和水汽压公式得到的水汽压值,并进行了比较.结果表明,在计算实际水汽压的过程中,用不同的饱和水汽压公式所产生的绝对偏差虽然不大,但相对偏差最大可能达到50％,不容忽视,对确定对流层上部的气候效应可能产生影响.     

A note on quaternary climate modelling using Boolean delay equations

The Boolean delay equation model of Ghil et al. for the study of Quaternary ice ages has been re-examined and also extended to include a hydrological feedback mechanism that directly influences the thermohaline circulation. For the basic Ghil et al. model (with the original and with corrected time delays), we show that the maximum duration for a high ice volume state depends continuously but not monotonically on the time delays of the problem. In particular, both short spiky glacials and longer glacials can be obtained from identical parameter values by simply choosing different initial conditions. In the extended model, we find that an additional temperature-hydrology-ocean feedback mechanism tends to generate longer glacials, but in neither case do the average time scales of model variability compare favourably with those of the major Quarternary glacials.     

Comparison of different boundary layer surface schemesusing single point micrometeorological field data

Summary  In the last decade, a vast number of land surface schemes has been designed for use in global climate models, atmospheric weather prediction, mesoscale numerical models, ecological models, and models of global changes. Since land surface schemes are designed for different purposes they have various levels of complexity in the treatment of bare soil processes, vegetation, and soil water movement. This paper is a contribution to a little group of papers dealing with intercomparison of differently designed and oriented land surface schemes. For that purpose we have chosen three schemes for classification: i) global climate models, BATS (Dickinson et al., 1986; Dickinson et al., 1992); ii) mesoscale and ecological models, LEAF (Lee, 1992) and iii) mesoscale models, LAPS (Mihailović, 1996; Mihailović and Kallos, 1997; Mihailović et al., 1999) according to the Shao et al. (1995) classification. These schemes were compared using surface fluxes and leaf temperature outputs obtained by time integrations of data sets derived from the micrometeorological measurements above a maize field at an experimental site in De Sinderhoeve (The Netherlands) for 18 August, 8 September, and 4 October 1988. Finally, comparison of the schemes was supported applying a simple statistical analysis on the surface flux outputs. Received November 23, 1999 Revised August 18, 2000     

Are polynyas self‐sustaining?

Abstract

In this paper, 441 Conductivity Temperature Depth (CTD) casts from the North Water (NOW) Polynya study were used to calculate geostrophic currents between the 10 and 200 dbar surface during April, May and June 1998. Results for April and May indicated a surface intensified southward flow of 10 to 15 cm s^–1 with a small return flow along the Greenland coast in agreement with inferred currents described by Melling et al. (2001) and surface ice drifts found by Wilson et al. (2001). Southward transports at this time were 0.4–0.55 Sv in April and May. In June, however, surface currents diminished markedly: southward transports declined to 0.1–0.35 Sv, coincident with a decrease in directly measured winds over the polynya and in the surface barometric pressure difference between Grise Fjord and the Carey Islands that was used as a surrogate for the local north wind speed. There was no evident decrease in air pressure difference between Resolute and Grise Fjord, indicative of the strength of the north wind over the eastern Arctic in general. The results are consistent with present thinking that the NOW Polynya is primarily a latent heat polynya, forced by dominant north winds. The idea, broached here, is that the polynya creates its own microclimate which sustains the polynya's ice‐free condition after its initial formation. The mechanism is identified by an anomalous low pressure region associated with surface buoyancy flux in the polynya and is pursued through the application of a simple geostrophic adjustment model that suggests two self‐sustaining mechanisms. Firstly, the frontal intrusion of the cold ambient terrestrial air mass drives a significant surface wind that transports frazil ice to the edge of the polynya before it can congeal. Secondly, rotation at these high latitudes restricts the penetration of the front into the polynya, essentially insulating the centre from freezing temperatures.     

A comparison of the static and flow methods for the detection of ice nuclei

The use of the membrane-filter processing chamber to study ice nuclei concentrations has become wide-spread since its introduction by Bigg et al. in 1961. The technique is convenient because of the simplicity of its operation and because it could be run remote from the place of field study. It has however been found to suffer from a number of drawbacks, namely, the volume effect, the chamber height effect, the vapour depletion effect, etc.Comparison of the results obtained by running a traditional filter processor and a continuous flow chamber under identical temperature and humidity conditions for polluted Manchester air has shown that the latter technique detects more ice nuclei than the former one by a factor of about 14±4. These results confirm that the filter technique suffers from the vapour depletion effect. The present results are in agreement with Bigg et al., Mossop and Thorndike, and King.In the light of our findings the filter technique does not appear to be a standard method. Therefore the ice nuclei data obtained with the filter method should not be extended to clouds in order to study their microphysical properties.     

WRF-WSM3微物理方案在青藏高原地区暴雪模拟中的改进及试验

通过青藏高原一次暴雪过程的模拟试验,对WRF模式中的WSM3微物理方案中的降水模拟偏差原因进行了分析,并根据观测试验结果,提出了改进WSM3微物理方案中冰核浓度的2种计算方案。通过调整温度和冰核浓度之间的关系,检验了冰核浓度Pigen过程对降水的影响。结果显示,WSM3方案对青藏高原地区的冰核浓度估计过高;当考虑了冰面过饱和度随温度区间的变化后,计算的冰核浓度可以改进降水的模拟效果;但通过温度的变化和冰面过饱和度二者的调整,降水模拟的效果并不明显。冰核浓度对温度变化的敏感存在着一个范围,冰面过饱和度和温度区间的大小存在一定关系。通过另外2个个例和敏感性试验的研究结果表明,对于温度较高的固态降水,冰核浓度的变化对降水模拟的改进不显著。