Toxicological and physiological responses of the fish,Leiostomus xanthurus,exposed to chlorine produced oxidants

The sublethal and lethal effects of chlorine produced oxidants (CPO) on juveniles of the estuarine teleost,Leiostomus xanthurus, were investigated in flowing water tests conducted at 30 ±1°C and 26 to 31‰ salinity. Short-term LT50 tests were conducted at two nominal concentrations of NaOCl, 1.0 and 1.4 mg/l (respective measured CPO concentrations 0.09 and 0.12 mg/l) which were sublethal in 2,880 minute exposures; and three nominal concentrations, 1.6, 1.8 and 3.2 mg/l NaOCl (respective measured CPO concentrations 0.13, 0.20 and 0.37 mg/l) which were acutely toxic. Opercular ventilation rates in exposed spot were much higher than in control fish, but returned to rates only slightly above those of controls during the latter portion of the 2,880 minute exposure to the two sublethal CPO concentrations. Opercular rates at the three acutely toxic CPO concentrations remained much higher than control rates until the exposed fish died. Blood pH after 2,880 minutes of exposure to the sublethal concentrations of CPO; or at the respective estimated LT50 for lethal concentrations, showed significant decreases ( \(\bar X\) as low as 6.84) compared to controls \((\bar X 7.35)\) . No significant changes in the % methemoglobin were observed. Oxygen uptake by spot was depressed at all of the measured concentrations of CPO tested. Histopathological examination showed that gill respiratory epithelial tissues sloughed away from the underlying pillar cells. Complete denudation of circulatory tissues and hemangiectic secondary lamellae were observed in gill tissues from fish exposed to the highest CPO concentration of 0.37 mg/l.     

Kepone®: Toxicity and bioaccumulation in blue crabs

Two long-term studies were conducted to determine toxicity, uptake and depuration of Kepone in blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). In the first, Kepone was administered to crabs in seawater (0.03 or 0.3 μg Kepone/I) or food (eastern oyster,Crassostrea virginica, containing 0.25 μg/g Kepone). Uptake of Kepone in 28 days was primarily through the contaminated oysters. When these crabs were held in Kepone-free seawater and fed Kepone-free oysters for 28 days, no loss of the insecticide was evident. There were adverse effects on molting and survival in crabs fed oysters that contained 0.25 μg/g Kepone. A second study was conducted to determine: (1) the depuration of Kepone over a 90-day period in blue crabs fed oysters from the James River, Virginia (containing 0.15 μg/g Kepone); and (2) the effects of Kepone on molting and survival of blue crabs fed James River oysters or laboratory-contaminated oysters that contained 0.15 or 1.9 μg/g Kepone. Crabs fed Kepone-contaminated oysters followed by a diet of Kepone-free oysters for 90 days had detectable concentrations of the insecticide in tissues. Also, blue crabs that ate oysters containing Kepone in concentrations similar to those found in oysters from the James River, died or molted less frequently than crabs fed Kepone-free oysters meats.     

水力联系系数法定量评价含水层之间水力联系

为了定量研究与评价含水层之间地下水水力联系程度,首次提出了水力联系系数C（hydraulic connection coefficient）的概念。将水力联系系数C定义为观测孔目的含水层水位降深与该观测孔位置抽水含水层水位降深的比值。通过水力联系系数,可定量评价某含水层水平上同层之间和垂向上不同含水层之间的水力联系程度。依据鄂尔多斯盆地白垩系洛河组各含水层段的水力联系系数C值,将含水层之间水力联系分为5个等级。其中,0.000 0 ≤ C<0.062 5,0.062 5 ≤ C<0.125 0,0.125 0 ≤ C<0.250 0,0.250 0 ≤ C<0.500 0,C ≥ 0.500 0,分别代表水力联系等级为极弱、弱、中等、强、极强。以高家堡井田钻孔抽（放）水试验数据为例,采用水力联系系数和观测孔水位响应时间两个指标定量评价了区内巨厚层状非均质洛河组含水层内部水力联系。结果表明：洛河组中上段水平同层之间的水力联系系数分别为0.373 0、0.413 8,观测孔水位响应时间较短（约为5 min）,水力联系强;洛河组下段水平同层之间水力联系系数分别为0.440 1、0.491 1,观测孔水位响应时间较短（为9~20 min）,水力联系强;洛河组中上段与下段垂向水力联系系数分别为0.000 2、0.007 2、0.089 7,观测孔水位响应时间较长（大于60 min）,水力联系极弱至弱。     

The effects of hydrocarbons on the setting of the American oyster,Crassostrea virginica,in intertidal habitats in Southeastern North Carolina

Effects of petroleum covered substrate on intertidal oyster spat (Crassostrea virginica) set were measured at three intertidal elevations in a southeastern North Carolina estuary.Mercenaria mercenaria shells were coated with Bunker C crude oil or a 40∶1 mixture of gasoline: 2-cycle engine oil and placed intertidally for seven 13-d periods. Spat densities were significantly lower on oil treatments versus control and gas-treated shells in the high intertidal zone. This was principally attributed to an increased sediment coat on oiled shells. Maximum spat size was smaller on oil-treated shells at all elevations when compared to gas and control shells, indicating that setting may be delayed on oiled shell. For all experimental 13-d periods in the low intertidal zone and for three periods in the mid-tidal zone, barnacle densities (primarilyBalanus improvisus andB. eburneus) were significantly greater on oiled shells than on control shells.     

Detoxification of chlorinated sewage effluent by dechlorination in estuarine waters

Secondary treated sewage was chlorinated to a residual level of 2–10 mg/l in a continuous flow system in the laboratory and diluted to various levels with estuarine water. A portion of the chlorinated sewage effluent was dechlorinated with sodium thiosulfate and the dechlorinated waste was diluted with estuarine water in the same proportions as the chlorinated waste.Menidia menidia, Palaemonetes pugio andCrassostrea virginica were exposed to chlorinated and dechlorinated treatments. High concentrations of chlorinated effluent caused mortalities inM. menidia andP. pugio, whereas similar concentrations of dechlorinated wastes did not cause mortalities. Mortalities in the chlorinated waste are correlated with chlorine residuals. Similarly, the chlorinated wastes depressed the shell deposition rate ofC. virginica below 50% of controls at all doses. Dechlorinated waste allowed shell deposition greater than 50% of controls. However, the occurrence of some growth inhibition inC. virginica exposed to dechlorinated waste suggests the presence of toxic material in the waste other than chlorine.     

Acute and chronic toxicity of atrazine to estuarine fauna

Acute and chronic estuarine invertebrate and fish toxicity testes were conducted to evaluate possible consequences of measured concentrations of atrazine in estuarine areas. The 96-h LC50 values ranged from 0.094 mg per 1 for copepods to >30 mg per 1 for larvae of eastern oysters. Maximum acceptable toxicant concentrations of >0.08<0.19 mg per 1 and >1.9<3.4 mg per 1 were determined for mysid shrimp and sheepshead minnows, respectively in life cycle and early life cycle testes. The approximate application factor limits in both tests were 0.1–0.2. Use of an application factor of 0.1 with the most sensitive species tested acutely provides a no effect, concentration of approximately 0.009 mg per 1 for estuarine fauna. Therefore, the maximum reported measured concentration of approximately 0.002 mg per 1 atrazine in estuarine areas would not be suspected to adversely impact estuarine fauna.     

Responses of developing estuarine macrobenthic communities to drilling muds

The effects of drilling mud, used in oil drilling operations, on development of estuarine macrobenthic communities from settling planktonic larvae were assessed by comparing numbers and species of animals that grew in uncontaminated and contaminated aquaria for 8 weeks. Aquaria contained sand and were continuously supplied unfiltered seawater. Seven lignosulfonate-type drilling muds obtained from an active exploratory platform in estuarine waters were tested consecutively at nominal concentrations of 0.5, 5, and 50 parts per million (ppm) in the water column. Numbers of tunicates, mollusks, and annelids per aquarium were significantly (α=0.05) decreased from control numbers in 50 ppm. Structural differences in communities exposed to 50 ppm from those in the control and lower concentrations were indicated by a decrease in Spearman's measure of rank correlation of species abundance and an increase in the Shannon-Weaver index of species diversity. A total of 13 species occurred in 50 ppm compared to 23 species in each of the other situations. Growth in diameter ofMolgula manhattensis was significantly affected in all concentrations of mud.     

关键元素与生命健康:中国耕地缺硒吗?

地球上的生命和非生命都是由自然界已发现的92种化学元素组成的,通过全国土壤地球化学基准值与人体血液元素含量对比研究,发现血液中40~50种化学元素平均值与土壤地球化学基准值的分布高度一致,表明这些关键元素与生命息息相关。近年大家持续关注的硒(Se)元素是人体必需的微量元素,缺乏会产生健康风险,但摄入过量也会导致中毒,因此被称为健康窗口元素。过去研究认为,中国耕地缺硒是造成健康危害的原因之一。本文通过对全国3 382个网格化点位土壤采样,获得Se的地球化学基准值和空间分布数据,发现中国贫硒国土面积,按照世界卫生组织推荐值(0.1 mg/kg)和中国规范(0.125 mg/kg)计算,分别占21.1%和31.6%;适宜区(0.125~0.40 mg/kg)面积大约555万km²,占国土面积约57.1%;富硒区(>0.40 mg/kg)面积达110万km²,占国土面积约11.2%。贫硒国土主要分布在青藏高原和内蒙古局部地区,而中国9大平原的粮食主产区耕地总体上不缺硒,其中珠江三角洲平原、广西平原、成都平原、长江中下游平原是富硒区(>0.40 mg/kg),华北平原、东北平原、三江平原、关中平原是硒边缘区-适量区(0.125~0.40 mg/kg),只有河套平原是缺硒区(<0.125 mg/kg)。根据覆盖全国的网格化土壤采样分析结果,发现低硒带呈不连续的片状分布于内蒙古东部至青藏高原一带,与传统认为“低硒带分布于东北三省至西南云贵高原”不完全一致。硒的空间分布模式主要受地质背景、岩石类型、土壤类型和自然地理景观控制。     

Effect of organic complexation on the toxicity of Cu to the earthworm Eisenia fetida

The relationship between Cu speciation in solution and mortality and tissue Cu concentrations in Eisenia fetida was investigated. E. fetida were exposed to solutions containing 0.009, 0.049 and 0.125 mg Cu L⁻¹and 0, 0.15, 0.35 and 50 mg EDTA L⁻¹. Mortalities of 100, 60, 50 and 25% were recorded in the 0.125 mg Cu L⁻¹ solutions containing 0, 0.15, 0.35 and 50 mg EDTA L⁻¹, respectively. Similarly tissue body burden decreased with increasing EDTA concentration. Complexation capacity of the solution increased with EDTA concentration. In the 0.125 mg Cu L⁻¹ solution labile Cu concentration decreased with increasing EDTA concentration. These trends are attributed to complexation of free Cu ions with EDTA molecules, and the non-bioavailable nature of the resultant Cu–EDTA complex.     

Adsorption of diclofenac on activated carbon and its hypochlorination in the presence of dissolved organic matter

The nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug “diclofenac” is the pharmaceutically active ingredient of several medicines. Since the compound is used in many of its water-soluble salt forms, it is one of the most frequently found pollutants in different parts of the water cycle. Its reaction with sodium hypochlorite was investigated in the presence of humic substances and sandy soil extract at neutral pH at 25 and 250 mg/L initial concentrations. In the lower concentration, the reaction follows a pseudo-first-order kinetics, while at the higher concentration, it is described as the sum of two first-order reactions. These kinetic results, together with the organic chlorine content of the residues, indicated that both chlorination and oxidation took place. The chlorination is significantly faster. The colloids present catalyze the reactions: The clay minerals of soil extract accelerated the chlorination, while the humic acids could work as photocatalysts in the oxidation, while these compounds themselves were chlorinated. The adsorption of diclofenac on activated carbon was enhanced by humic substances, and every isotherm had a breaking point near to 3 mg/L equilibrium concentration (c _e) resulting in two steps. According to the measurements of the zeta potential, the system proved to be relatively stable at this c _e value, but at higher diclofenac concentrations the stability retained only in the presence of the hydrophilic fulvic acid. The results supported the adsorption hypothesis that in the first step the charge transfer interaction while in the second step hydrogen bond formation plays the key role.     

Characterization of bioflocculants produced by bacteria isolated from crude petroleum oil

The aim of this study was to look for high efficient bioflocculant-producing microorganisms. Among 36 bacterial colonies isolated from a crude petroleum oil sample, three of them as Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas spp. exhibited flocculation activity exceeding 90 % after 3 days of cultivation. They were identified by 16 S rDNA sequence analysis as Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas sp. Spectroscopic analysis of the polymers by nuclear magnetic resonance and fourier-transform infrared revealed that the polymers were glycoproteins. These polymers were soluble in water and insoluble in any organic solvents tested. The effects of bioflocculant dosage, temperature and pH on the flocculation activity were evaluated. The maximum bioflocculation activities were observed at an optimum bioflocculant dosage of 3.5 mg/L (strains Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas) and 5.0 mg/L (strain CPO14), respectively. In addition, these biopolymers were able to flocculate kaolin suspension (5 g/L) over a wide range of pH (pH 3–9) and temperature (5–50 °C) tested in the presence of CaCl₂. The highest flocculation activities of strains CPO8, CPO13 and CPO14 were 96.03 %, 92.17 % and 97.59 %, respectively in the early stationary phase (at 24 h), while the cell production reached its maximum in the stationary phase (at 72 h). Their efficient flocculation capabilities suggest potential applications in industries.     

Role of Flood Disturbance in Natural Oyster (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Crassostrea virginica</Emphasis>) Population Maintenance in an Estuary in South Texas,USA

A 2-year period with flood versus drought conditions provided the opportunity to examine the effects of flood disturbance on subtidal eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica biology and population dynamics in a south Texas estuary. Oysters were sampled monthly in 2007 and 2008 to examine the impacts of changing environmental conditions on oyster populations. Oysters were also examined quarterly for the presence of Perkinsus marinus. Filtration rates were calculated as a function of oyster size, temperature, salinity, and total suspended solids. Flood events in 2007 caused temporary reductions in salinity and were associated with reductions in oyster abundance, spat settlement, disease levels (weighted prevalence and percent infection), and filtration rates. Oyster populations had generally recovered within 1 year’s time—the oysters were younger and smaller but were just as abundant as pre-flood levels. The rapid return of oysters to pre-flood abundance levels is attributed in part to the ability of oysters in Gulf coast estuaries to spawn multiple times in a single season and in part to their relatively high growth rates. Although flood disturbance may temporarily reduce or destroy oyster populations, the ability of the Mission–Aransas Estuary to retain freshwater pulses within the system and maintain low salinities that are unfavorable for predators and disease can facilitate oyster population recovery. Episodic flood events appear to play a critical role in promoting long-term oyster population maintenance in the Mission–Aransas Estuary. The response of oysters to changing environmental conditions over the short term provides some insights into the potential long-term effects of changing climate.     

Seasonal and Spatial Effects of Wastewater Effluent on Growth,Survival, and Accumulation of Microbial Contaminants by Oysters in Mobile Bay,Alabama

We measured seasonal effects of wastewater treatment plant (WTP) effluent on growth, survival, and accumulation of microbes in oysters near a major WTP in Mobile Bay, AL. Despite higher nutrients near the WTP, seasonal conditions rather than distance affected chlorophyll a concentration and oyster growth. In summer and fall, when oyster growth was higher, δ¹⁵N‰ in oysters near the WTP changed through time to reflect δ¹⁵N‰ in effluent (approx. −4‰). Microbial indicators (male-specific coliphage, fecal coliforms) were highest in oysters near the WTP in all seasons and correlated with δ¹⁵N‰ in fall and summer. Increased riverine discharge and slower acquisition of δ¹⁵N‰ likely confounded correlations in winter/spring. Although we did not detect gross ecological effects of wastewater exposure for oysters, data indicated wastewater-derived particles entered the local food web and accumulated in oysters. These data highlight the importance of using multiple indicators of wastewater exposure and considering both seasonal and spatial effects when defining wastewater influence on a system or species.     

Effects of Bunker C oil on Juvenile horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus)

Newly hatched horsehoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus) were exposed to autoclaved Bunker C oil for 8 weeks. Autoclaving served to prevent bacterial degradation of stored oil and to drive off the volatile fraction of the oil. The oil was introduced in the form of a whole oil suspension. Minimum lethal dose was shown to be 2.25 mg per 1. Concentrations greater than 0.25 mg per 1 caused a delay in molting.     

石英结晶学优选与应用

石英集合体的结晶学优选可由位错滑移、双晶滑移、定向成核与生长等形成,其中位错滑移是塑性变形岩石中石英结晶学优选产生的最重要的机制。影响变形石英结晶学优选的因素有温度、应变速率、应变、差应力、水、复矿物岩石中各种矿物间的相互作用、初始结晶学方向等。系统总结了石英晶体变形与滑移系,结晶学优选的测量与表达,多种条件下石英的结晶学优选,以及在判断剪切方向、计算运动学涡度、判定变形温度、分析变形历史等方面的应用,并认为应用石英组构作运动学和动力学解析时需与其它微观、宏观现象相结合。     

Post-deformational annealing of calcite rocks

The evolution of microstructure and crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) during post-deformational annealing was studied on three calcite rock types differing in purity and grain size: Carrara marble (98% calcite, mean grain size of 115 μm), Solnhofen limestone (96%, 5 μm) and synthetic calcite aggregates (99%, 7 μm). Samples were first deformed in torsion at 727 °C at a shear strain rate of 3 × 10^{− 4} s^{− 1} to a shear strain of 5 and subsequently heat-treated at 727 °C for various durations between 0 and 24 h. Microstructures and CPOs were analysed by optical microscopy, image analysis and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD).All rock types deformed in the dislocation creep field at the same applied conditions, but their microstructures and CPOs after deformation and after annealing differed depending on starting grain size and material composition. In Carrara marble and in the synthetic calcite aggregate, a strong CPO developed during deformation accompanied by dynamic recrystallisation with significant changes in grain size. During annealing, widespread grain growth and subtle changes of CPO occurred, and equilibrated foam microstructures were approached after long annealing times. The CPO is the only feature in annealed samples indicating an earlier deformation phase, although it is not always identical to the CPO formed during deformation. In the more impure Solnhofen limestone, secondary phases on grain boundaries suppressed grain boundary mobility and prevented both the formation of a recrystallisation CPO during deformation and grain size modification during deformation and annealing.     

Vital and mortal staining of algae in the presence of chlorine-produced oxidants

Evans blue and neutral red were tested as mortal and vital stains respectively for eight estuarine algal species which had been exposed to chlorine-produced oxidants in a continuous-flow system. The effect of CPO on staining with Evans blue was negligible. High concentrations of CPO affected staining with neutral red in several instances; this is probably due to CPO-induced mortality of test organisms during the exposure or staining period. Neutral red leached fromSkeletonema costatum andOlisthodiscus luteus before the end of the staining period. Staining ofDunaliella tertiolecta with neutral red proceeded more slowly. Evens blue, which was incorporated quickly and remained in the cells, is recommended for live-dead determinations for all species examined exceptNitzschia closterium, for which neutral red should be used. Neither stain was effective onMychonastes ruminatus (Simpson and Van Valkenburg 1978).     

Galveston Bay: Temporal changes in the concentrations of trace organic contaminants in national status and trends oysters (1986–1994)

The temporal distributions for six classes of trace organic contaminants (chlordanes, DDTs, dieldrin, PAHs, PCBs, and butyltins) in oysters from six Galveston Bay sites from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Status and Trends (NS&T) Mussel Watch Program are compared with other NS&T sites from the Gulf of Mexico as well as all NS&T sites of the United States (East Coast, West Coast, and Gulf of Mexico). Decreases in the median for the Gulf-wide concentration of chlordanes, dieldrin, and butyltins occurred during 1986–1994. The Gulfwide median concentrations of DDTs, PAHs, and PCBs exhibited a strong cyclic distribution with time. For Galveston Bay oysters, “high” concentration is defined as the concentration greater than the median plus one standard deviation for all Gulf of Mexico sites. The percentage of sites having high concentrations during 1986–1994 for Galveston Bay oysters are 49% for dieldrin, 45% for butyltins, 40% for chlordanes, 38% for PCBs, 30% for PAHs, and 21% for DDTs. For PCBs, 43% of Galveston Bay oyster samples analyzed over the first 9 yr have concentrations high enough for potential biological effects to be observed in oysters. The percentages in other agents were chlordanes (22%), butyltins (22%), dieldrin (5%), and PAHs (4%). National Academy of Science-proposed regulatory limits for oysters were exceeded in only 2% of Galveston Bay samples for DDTs and 1% for PCBs. All other contaminants were below proposed NAS limits.     

Determination of Chlorine in Nine Rock Reference Materials by Isotope Dilution Mass Spectrometry

A procedure for the determination of chlorine by the isotope dilution technique (ID) using negative thermal ionisation mass spectrometry (N-TIMS) is described. Silicate samples of about 10 mg were spiked and decomposed with hydrofluoric acid, and chlorine was isolated by precipitation of silver chloride after neutralisation with Ca(OH)₂. The ammonical solution of AgCl was then subjected to N-TIMS. Replicate analyses of rock reference materials, typically of JB-1 and JR-1, demonstrated the high quality of the analyses (precision for Cl was ± 1-2%). We present here the most precise data sets of chlorine concentrations in nine igneous rock reference materials, three basalts (JB-1, JB-2, JB-3), two andesites (JA-3, AGV-1), two rhyolites (JR-1, JR-2) and two granodiorites (JG-3, GSP-1). The chlorine concentrations found ranged from 152 μg g-1 in AGV-1 to 1008 μg g^-1 in JR-1. Our results presented here are partly (but not completely) in agreement with recommended values, where they are available. The N-TIMS ID technique can thus be used as a means of determining low chlorine contents in silicate materials to high precision.     

Contributions of coastal and watershed energy sources to secondary production in a Northeastern Pacific Estuary

We examined the relationship between variation in origin of organic matter and benthic secondary production in a shallow, macrotidal estuary on the United States Pacific Northwest coast, Willapa Bay, Washington. Spatial variation in energy sources and benthic productivity were investigated at both local (vertical height and cross-bank components) and regional (sites within the bay) scales. We determined the stable carbon isotope ratios of oysters (Crassostrea gigas) to evaluate marine versus terrestrial energy sources, compared growth rates of oysters, and made time series measurements of physical variablest at estuarine channel and intertidal stations. The stable carbon isotope ratios of oysters ranged from ?22‰ in inner portions of the estuary to ?18‰ near the mouth and oysters grown on the substrate surface were enriched in δ¹³C relative to those grown in the water column. These patterns are consistent with terrigenous inputs away from the estuary mouth and benthic microalgae in the diets of on-bottom oysters. The highest oyster growth was found at an inner estuary site where riverine inputs are relatively high and coincided, with high ammonium in the water column. However, for most sites in Willapa Bay, oyster growth actually declined away from the estuary mouth. Reducing the time available for feeding by transplanting oysters higher in the intertidal zone had significant negative effects on growth(e.g., a reduction of 27–35% over 0.5 m). Despite the fact that oysters grown on-bottom had access to different resources than those in the water column, their growth was slower at amy given tidal elevation, which may be due to on-bottom competition with other suspension feeders, boundary layer effects, or interference from turbidity. In a practical sense, oyster growers have been adjusting to allochthonous energetic support of food webs in Willapa Bay for more than a century, because they have traditionally moved oysters from southern parts of the bay where recruitment is relatively high to beds where market-size oysters can be grown closer to the mouth. This study provides mechanistic support for these practices and suggests that climatic events on a variety of temporal scales (Pacific Decadal Oscillation, upwelling events) could have economic consequences for aquaculture.