Long-term variability and methods of forecasting dates of ice break-up in the mouth area of the Ob and Yenisei rivers

Long-term characteristics of the onset dates of spring ice phases at hydrological stations in the mouth areas of the Ob and Yenisei rivers for 1936–2006 are obtained. The correlations are analyzed between these dates and the frequency of different synoptic processes over the Atlantic and Eurasia in the fall-winter months, the dates when the accumulated temperatures at meteorological stations in the middle parts of the river basins reach 5, 10, 20, 30, and 40°C, and the dates of the start of ice drift at the upstream sections of the Yenisei. Prognostic relations are suggested and test forecasts of the onset dates of ice phases are verified. The percentage of correct forecasts was 67–86%, which makes it possible to recommend the relations for using in prognostic practice. The forecast lead time ranges from 3 to 110 days.     

Impact of a realistic river routing in coupled ocean–atmosphere simulations of the Last Glacial Maximum climate

The presence of large ice sheets over North America and North Europe at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) strongly impacted Northern hemisphere river pathways. Despite the fact that such changes may significantly alter the freshwater input to the ocean, modified surface hydrology has never been accounted for in coupled ocean–atmosphere general circulation model simulations of the LGM climate. To reconstruct the LGM river routing, we use the ICE-5G LGM topography. Because of the uncertainties in the extent of the Fennoscandian ice sheet in the Eastern part of the Kara Sea, we consider two more realistic river routing scenarios. The first scenario is characterised by the presence of an ice dammed lake south of the Fennoscandian ice sheet, and corresponds to the ICE-5G topography. This lake is fed by the Ob and Yenisei rivers. In the second scenario, both these rivers flow directly into the Arctic Ocean, which is more consistent with the latest QUEEN ice sheet margin reconstructions. We study the impact of these changes on the LGM climate as simulated by the IPSL_CM4 model and focus on the overturning thermohaline circulation. A comparison with a classical LGM simulation performed using the same model and modern river basins as designed in the PMIP2 exercise leads to the following conclusions: (1) The discharge into the North Atlantic Ocean is increased by 2,000 m³/s between 38° and 54°N in both simulations that contain LGM river routing, compared to the classical LGM experiment. (2) The ice dammed lake is shown to have a weak impact, relative to the classical simulation, both in terms of climate and ocean circulation. (3) In contrast, the North Atlantic deep convection and meridional overturning are weaker than during the classical LGM run if the Ob and Yenisei rivers flow directly into the Arctic Ocean. The total discharge into the Arctic Ocean is increased by 31,000 m³/s, relative to the classical LGM simulation. Consequentially, northward ocean heat transport is weaker, and sea ice more extensive, in better agreement with existing proxy data.     

Changes in the Number and Timing of Days of Ice-Affected Flow on Northern New England Rivers, 1930–2000

Historical dates of ice-affected flows for 16 rural, unregulated rivers in northern New England, USA were analyzed. The total annual days of ice-affected flow decreased significantly (p < 0.1) over the 20th century at 12 of the 16 rivers. On average, for the nine longest-record rivers, the total annual days of ice-affected flow decreased by 20 days from 1936 to 2000, with most of the decrease occurring from the 1960s to 2000. Four of the 16 rivers had significantly later first dates of ice-affected flow in the fall. Twelve of the 16 rivers had significantly earlier last dates of ice-affected flow in the spring. On average, the last dates became earlier by 11 days from 1936 to 2000 with most of the change occurring from the 1960s to 2000. The total annual days of ice-affected flow were significantly correlated with November through April air temperatures (r = −0.70) and with November through April precipitation (r = −0.52). The last spring dates were significantly correlated with March through April air temperatures (r = −0.73) and with January through April precipitation (r = −0.37). March mean river flows increased significantly at 13 of the 16 rivers in this study.The U.S. Government right to retain a non-exclusive royalty-free license in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

近50a山东中部地区四季开始日期及长度变化特征

利用山东中部地区8个气象站1966—2015年逐日气温观测资料,用5日滑动平均气温作为划分依据,结合气候趋势法、Mann-Kendall法和经验正交分解法,对山东中部地区近50 a的四季开始日期及长度时空变化特征进行分析。结果表明:山东中部地区春季和夏季开始日期呈提前趋势,秋季和冬季呈推迟趋势,其中,夏季和冬季开始日期在1993年发生突变,四季开始日期的主要空间变化趋势一致,秋季变化强度中心在中北部平原,其他三季变化强度中心均出现在中部地区,四季开始日期空间变化规律在第二特征向量上呈现区域变化的不一致性。冬季日数最多,其次为夏季,春季日数最少,春季和冬季日数呈减少趋势,冬季减少趋势显著,气候倾向率为-2.98 d/10 a,夏季和秋季日数呈增加趋势,夏季日数增加显著,四季日数主要空间变化规律一致,强度中心在中部地区,四季日数空间变化规律在第二特征向量上存在不一致性,其中,夏季和秋季第二特征向量呈现南部山区与其他地区不同。     

1960-2009年武汉城区与郊区气候季节变化

利用1960-2009年武汉城区与郊区气象站逐日平均气温资料,采用相同气候季节划分方法,系统分析武汉城区与郊区气候季节起始时间、季节长度的变化趋势及其差异。结果表明：1980-2009年,武汉城区入春、入夏时间比郊区分别提前10 d和5 d,入秋、入冬时间城区比郊区推迟;武汉夏季长度城区比郊区长12 d,冬季、春季长度城区比郊区短6 d和5 d。1960-2009年武汉四季平均起始时间城区与郊区差别较小,但四季最早、最晚出现时间年际差别较大;武汉入春、入夏时间城区与郊区均提前,入秋、入冬时间均推后,但城区四季变化较显著,郊区仅入秋变化显著;武汉城区夏季长度呈极显著延长,冬季长度呈较显著缩短,城区春季、秋季及郊区四季长度变化均不显著。2000-2009年武汉城区与郊区季节起始时间和季节长度的变化较大,这是因为近10 a武汉作为中部地区崛起的支点,城区发展迅速。     

冬季西、北江径流量异常的前期海-气背景场特征

1990年以来珠江口出现7次强咸潮,主要原因是珠江流域秋、冬季少雨,西、北江径流减少。根据实测资料,分析西、北江流域近50年来冬季径流量变化特点,从大尺度海-气相互作用出发,分析冬季径流量减少的前期海-气特征,得出E l N ino与La N ina发生次年冬季,西、北江径流量出现负距平的机率分别为10/14和10/11,与副高强弱有关。这在冬季径流量预报及珠江口咸潮超前预警上有重要参考价值。并据此预测2005/2006冬季径流量为负距平,极可能再次出现强咸潮。     

青藏高原四季开始日期随海拔高度和纬度变化

利用中国气象局国家气象信息中心提供的青藏高原60个测站1961~2007年逐日气温资料, 分析了青藏高原近47年来四季开始日期随海拔高度和纬度的变化趋势。结果表明, 春季和夏季开始日期是整体提前, 而秋季和冬季开始日期是整体延迟的, 春季和冬季开始日期的变化相对夏季和秋季更为明显;四季开始日期随海拔高度变化分布明显不同, 海拔越高, 春夏季开始日期来临越晚, 秋冬季开始日期来临越早, 海拔越低, 春夏季开始日期来临越早, 秋冬季开始日期来临越晚;海拔越高, 春夏开始日期提前的天数越多, 秋冬开始日期推迟天数越多, 反之低海拔地区相对更小, 由此得知高海拔地区的季节开始日期对当地气温的增温更为敏感;春季开始日期在36°N以南基本随纬度递增而开始日期推后, 36°N以北地区春季相对偏早, 夏季、秋季、冬季开始日期随纬度的变化和春季变化基本相似;四季开始日期来临的早晚受到多种因素包括气温、海拔和纬度共同影响, 季节延迟率也受到气温和海拔的影响, 但是纬度对季节延迟率影响不大;四季开始日期的提前和延迟变化和当地气温的变化几乎一致, 秋冬季节的开始日期对气温变化更为敏感, 高海拔地区的季节开始日期对气温变化更为敏感。     

Indicators of Climate Warming in Minnesota: Lake ICE Covers and Snowmelt Runoff

Records of hydrologic parameters, especially those parameters that are directly linked to air temperature, were analyzed to find indicators of recent climate warming in Minnesota, USA. Minnesota is projected to be vulnerable to climate change because of its location in the northern temperate zone of the globe. Ice-out and ice-in dates on lakes, spring (snowmelt) runoff timing, spring discharge values in streams, and stream water temperatures recorded up to the year 2002 were selected for study. The analysis was conducted by inspection of 10-year moving averages, linear regression on complete and on partial records, and by ranking and sorting of events. Moving averages were used for illustrative purposes only. All statistics were computed on annual data. All parameters examined show trends, and sometimes quite variable trends, over different periods of the record. With the exception of spring stream flow rates the trends of all parameters examined point toward a warming climate in Minnesota over the last two or three decades. Although hidden among strong variability from year to year, ice-out dates on 73 lakes have been shifting to an earlier date at a rate of −0.13 days/year from 1965 to 2002, while ice-in dates on 34 lakes have been delayed by 0.75 days/year from 1979 to 2002. From 1990 to 2002 the rates of change increased to −0.25 days/year for ice-out and 1.44 days/year for ice-in. Trend analyses also show that spring runoff at 21 stream gaging sites examined occurs earlier. From 1964 to 2002 the first spring runoff (due to snowmelt) has occurred −0.30 days/year earlier and the first spring peak runoff −0.23 days/year earlier. The stream water temperature records from 15 sites in the Minneapolis/St Paul metropolitan area shows warming by 0.11^∘C/year, on the average, from 1977 to 2002. Urban development may have had a strong influence. The analysis of spring stream flow rates was inconclusive, probably because runoff is linked as much to precipitation and land use as to air temperature. Ranking and sorting of annual data shows that a disproportionately large number of early lake ice-out dates has occurred after 1985, but also between 1940 and 1950; similarly late lake ice-in has occurred more frequently since about 1990. Ranking and sorting of first spring runoff dates also gave evidence of earlier occurrences, i.e. climate warming in late winter. A relationship of changes in hydrologic parameters with trends in air temperature records was demonstrated. Ice-out dates were shown to correlate most strongly with average March air temperatures shifting by −2.0 days for a 1^°C increase in March air temperature. Spring runoff dates also show a relationship with March air temperatures; spring runoff dates shift at a rate of −2.5 days/1^°C minimum March air temperature change. Water temperatures at seven river sites in the Minneapolis/St Paul metropolitan area show an average rise of 0.46^°C in river temperature/1^°C mean annual air temperature change, but this rate of change probably includes effects of urban development. In conclusion, records of five hydrologic parameters that are closely linked to air temperature show a trend that suggests recent climate warming in Minnesota, and especially from 1990 to 2002. The recent rates of change calculated from the records are very noteworthy, but must not be used to project future parameter values, since trends cannot continue indefinitely, and trend reversals can be seen in some of the long-term records.     

Temporal and geographical variation in the onset of climatological spring in Northeast China

Indications of earlier onset of spring have been observed in behavior of diverse animal and plant species in the Northern Hemisphere in response to recent climate warming. Knowledge of changes in the spring onset is a critical requirement for understanding ecosystem adaption to climate change, especially for agricultural regions. In this study, we present a climatological approach for detecting the temporal and spatial variability in onset of spring with particular emphasis on how they vary along geographical parameters. Yearly dates for spring onset were computed for 71 climate stations in Northeast China based on daily surface air temperature records. These analyses were conducted for the two study periods (1960–2004 and 1979–2004). We also examined the boundary shifts of spring onset for three selected dates between the periods of 1960–1978 and 1979–2004. The results showed that advancement of spring onset was more pronounced for the period of 1979–2004 than for the period of 1960–2004 (4.0 vs. 2.2 days/decade). For the 22 stations where the spring advancement was statistically significant in the two periods, the mean rate of advancement was ?0.6 days/decade during the period of 1960 to 1978. The trends of advancement of spring onset decreased with both increasing latitude and altitude up to 300 m above sea level, and these geographical effects were clearer during 1979–2004. Analysis of boundary shifts of three specific dates revealed that the spring onset has moved to higher latitudes for each date with an average shift of about 1° of latitude (about 110 km). Our results suggest that attempts to address how ecosystems will adapt to spring advancement associated with climate warming should consider the differences in response rates and geographical effects across the study area.     

Breakup and freezeup of the Red River at Winnipeg,Manitoba Canada in the 19th century and some climatic implications

Breakup and freezeup dates for the Red River at Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, were compiled from archival sources for the period from 1815 to the beginning of published data in 1908. Median 19th C dates of freezeup and break-up were 12 and 10 days earlier and later respectively than during the 20th C, and the average ‘ice-in’ season was nearly three weeks longer. Correlation of breakup and freezeup dates with spring and fall temperatures suggests that both seasons were about 25 °C cooler in the 19th C than in the 20th. The change appears to have occurred rapidly at the end of the 19th C.     

气候变暖背景下我国四季开始时间的变化特征

利用中国气象局国家气象信息中心提供的中国599个测站1961～2007年逐日温度资料,分析了我国近47年来四季开始日期的变化趋势。结果表明,四季开始日期在全国范围内主要表现为春季、夏季提早,秋季、冬季推迟的变化趋势,其中以夏季的变化最为明显,且在显著增温的21世纪初最为明显。这种趋势在空间分布上有所差异,北方比南方明显,东部比西部明显。东北最北部、华南最南部以及新疆局部区域春季推迟,青海东部以及内蒙古最北部的小范围地区夏季推迟,华南及西南局部地区冬季提早。此外,全国平均四季开始日期的年代际变化在20世纪并不是很明显,而在21世纪初非常明显。但年代际变化特征存在区域性差异,高原地区20世纪80年代和90年代春季提早,冬季推迟。而在21世纪初春季、冬季均推迟,但冬季的变化比春季明显得多。华南南部地区春季推迟、冬季提早。西南地区在21世纪初春季、夏季明显提早,秋季、冬季推迟,但之前这种趋势并不明显。     

1961—2017年云南季节变化特征分析

参照《中华人民共和国气象行业标准-气候季节划分》（QX/T 152-2012）中关于气候季节的定义标准,利用1961-2017年云南122个气象站的气温资料,分析了云南的气候季节区域的空间分布和季节开始日期及长度的变化趋势。云南共有4种气候季节区域,分别是四季分明区、无夏区、无冬区和常春区。无夏区范围最广,无冬区其次。不同年代四种季节气候区域空间分布范围不尽相同,无夏区和无冬区空间范围变化最显著。2011年以后云南出现四季分明区范围明显增大的现象,这与近年来气候变暖背景下云南气温年较差增大的观测事实相一致。云南四季分明区春季和秋季较长,夏季和冬季较短。无夏区秋季最长、春季次之、冬季最短。无冬区夏季最长、春季和秋季长度接近。不同气候季节区域间春季和夏季开始日期的变化均呈提早趋势,秋季和冬季开始日期有推迟的趋势;在季节长度变化上,夏季增长,冬季变短,但春秋季长度的变化不尽相同。     

Long-term variability of ice formation dates on the rivers of the Votkinsk Reservoir catchment

Long-term variations of ice formation dates are studied using the long (more than 100 years) series of observations of ice regime on the rivers of the Votkinsk Reservoir catchment. Proposed is the methodological approach to assessing the long-term variability of these dates using both parametric and nonparametric statistical criteria.     

Projections of climate change impacts on river flood conditions in Germany by combining three different RCMs with a regional eco-hydrological model

A general increase in precipitation has been observed in Germany in the last century, and potential changes in flood generation and intensity are now at the focus of interest. The aim of the paper is twofold: a) to project the future flood conditions in Germany accounting for various river regimes (from pluvial to nival-pluvial regimes) and under different climate scenarios (the high, A2, low, B1, and medium, A1B, emission scenarios) and b) to investigate sources of uncertainty generated by climate input data and regional climate models. Data of two dynamical Regional Climate Models (RCMs), REMO (REgional Model) and CCLM (Cosmo-Climate Local Model), and one statistical-empirical RCM, Wettreg (Wetterlagenbasierte Regionalisierungsmethode: weather-type based regionalization method), were applied to drive the eco-hydrological model SWIM (Soil and Water Integrated Model), which was previously validated for 15 gauges in Germany. At most of the gauges, the 95 and 99 percentiles of the simulated discharge using SWIM with observed climate data had a good agreement with the observed discharge for 1961–2000 (deviation within ±10 %). However, the simulated discharge had a bias when using RCM climate as input for the same period. Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions were fitted to the annual maximum series of river runoff for each realization for the control and scenario periods, and the changes in flood generation over the whole simulation time were analyzed. The 50-year flood values estimated for two scenario periods (2021–2060, 2061–2100) were compared to the ones derived from the control period using the same climate models. The results driven by the statistical-empirical model show a declining trend in the flood level for most rivers, and under all climate scenarios. The simulations driven by dynamical models give various change directions depending on region, scenario and time period. The uncertainty in estimating high flows and, in particular, extreme floods remains high, due to differences in regional climate models, emission scenarios and multi-realizations generated by RCMs.     

冬季气温急剧升、降日期与东北夏季低温的联系

利用通化市所属5个气象站1954—2006年日平均温度组成的区域平均时间序列资料、季平均温度资料,分析了短期气温的剧烈变化(本文称之为寒潮和气温骤升)与后期季温度异常的关系,结果发现,冬季短期气温的剧烈变化与后期春、夏季气温距平存在联系,表现在一些特定的寒潮(或气温骤升)爆发日期段总是与后期季的高或低温相对应。在一定的年代背景下,一些日期段还与极端季温度距平存在明显的联系。与后期气温异常联系明显的寒潮爆发、气温骤升日期段存在着周期性,与春季低温对应明显的寒潮爆发日期有5 d的时间间隔;与春季低温对应明显的气温骤升的日期存在着9~11 d的周期,且随着日期的变化,爆发日期之间的间隔有规律的延长和缩短。一些寒潮爆发和气温骤升日期与东北夏季低温冷害存在明显的联系。     

Consistency analysis of pluviometric information in Galicia (NW Spain)

An important issue in pluviometric data analysis from rain gauges is the verification of their consistency. In general, this attribute is assessed using double-mass curves. This technique compares cumulative monthly rainfall from a gauge with that averaged from meteorological stations located nearby. The aim of this study was to analyze the quality of monthly rainfall data registered in Galicia (NW Spain) in a five year period (2002–2006). Initially, 159 meteorological stations were evaluated; however, 59 gauges were withdrawn because 10% of their data were missing. Double-mass analysis was performed following two procedures: a) data from each gauge were compared to those obtained in the nearby main station and b) data from each site were compared to the average from five nearby gauges, including data from neighboring regions. The second procedure proved to be more reliable. Rainfall data did not show any outlier for the study period. Determination coefficients were greater than 0.95 in all cases. A graphical analysis showed some deviations from the trend lines in certain stations. First, rainfall maps were obtained by inverse distances weighting. Furthermore, a comprehensive geostatistical analysis, centered in the characterization of the structure of rainfall spatial variability, was performed. Differences between two kriging methods, ordinary and kriging with an external drift, were confirmed, considering the later as a more appropriate technique for rainfall interpolation in the region.     

Estimating minimum temperature and climatological freeze risk in hilly terrain

Differences between weather station and on-farm minimum temperatures in hilly terrain were related to general weather parameters, using stepwise multiple linear regression and correlation techniques. Opacity (cloud cover) and wind speed were the most significant parameters, explaining up to 79% of the variation in night-time temperature differences between base station and field sites 20–40 km away. Considering dew point depression, days since 0.25 cm rainfall, absolute minimum temperature, cloud base height, opacity as quadratic and an exponential relationship did not improve the regression estimates significantly. Standard error of estimates ranged from 0.8°C for sites on hilltops to 2.3°C for valley bottoms. In independent data tests using 19 cases, the average minimum temperature difference between the base station and a high risk site was estimated within 0.4°C of the measured value. Significance of the regression relationships increased proportionally with distance down the slopes. Base station-site minimum temperature differences on relatively clear calm nights averaged near 1°C on hilltops, 2° to 3°C midway down slopes and 5° to 6°C in the hollows.Regression equations developed from short-term temperature measurements at more than 50 sites were used to estimate daily site minimum temperatures for a 21-year period. Spring and fall freeze probabilities for critical temperatures of 32°, 30° and 28°F (0.0°, −1.1° and −2.2°C) were then calculated for each site using standard climatological techniques. Estimated average freeze dates in hollows were up to 34 days later in spring and 39 days earlier in fall than on hilltops. Average dates of spring and fall freeze occurrences were delayed and advanced respectively about 6 days for each degree (C) drop in critical temperature. In independent data tests the average spring and fall ground frost dates at the base station were estimated within 2 days of measured values, using similar techniques. Minimum temperatures measured by traverses on a clear, calm night were highly correlated with estimated frost dates (R = 0.99).     

Changes in pick beginning date and frost damage risk of tea tree in Longjing tea-producing area

We analyze the pick beginning date and frost damage risk trends of Jiukeng, Longjing-43, and Wuniuzao tea trees with time, using meteorological data from 12 station pairs over the period 1971–2010 in the Longjing tea-producing area. The pick beginning date of Jiukeng, Longjing-43, and Wuniuzao varieties had no statistically significant trends before 1990. The pick beginning date of Jiukeng variety had statistically significant decreasing trends after 1990, and there were no statistically significant trends in the start date after 1990 for Longjing-43 and Wuniuzao varieties. The average pick beginning dates of Longjing-43 and Wuniuzao varieties before 1990 are later than those after 1990 by 3.8–4.8 and 2.0–3.1 days, respectively. We used the trend of difference between beginning date of tea plucking (BDTP) and 0 °C terminal date to analyze frost damage risk trends. Eleven counties had no statistically significant frost damage risk trends for Jiukeng, Longjing-43, and Wuniuzao varieties, leaving only one county with statistically significant trends.     

珠江三角洲秋季大气边界层温度和风廓线观测研究

根据2004年10月珠江三角洲3个代表性观测点大气边界层观测资料, 分析了珠江三角洲秋季大气边界层温度和风廓线特征。结果表明:珠江三角洲秋季气温递减率较低, 逆温出现频率较高, 强度较弱, 海风使珠江口贴地逆温的出现时间推迟、低空逆温的出现频率增加。珠江三角洲秋季受多种局地环流影响, 边界层内风廓线比较复杂, 晚上城市群与非城市群地区风向有明显差别; 城市群和珠江口多次分别观测到城市热岛环流和海风环流。     

1971~2013年我国四季开始日期及生长期长度的变化特征分析

利用中国气象局国家气象信息中心提供的中国584个气象站点1971～2013年的逐日气温数据,采用线性倾向估计和经验模态分解（EMD）等方法,以地理信息系统为数据处理平台,分析我国43年来四季起始日以及生长期的变化特征。结果表明：新疆、云南和四川地区的四季起始日变化呈现明显的南北差异;全国大部分地区春、夏季起始日提前,春季比夏季提前趋势更明显,江苏、安徽、湖北大部和云南北部春季提前显著,提前率为4.1～7.2 d/10 a;夏季提前的区域更广,新疆东部、甘肃西部、华南大部和云南南部夏季提前显著,提前率为2.9～4.6 d/10 a;全国大部分地区秋、冬季起始日推迟,秋季比冬季推迟的范围更大,新疆南部和四川西部秋季推迟明显,推迟率为4.4～8.6 d/10 a;冬季推迟趋势更显著,新疆东南部和青海大部冬季推迟明显,推迟率为4.7～13.8 d/10 a;全国各地区生长期均有延长,最显著的是云川交界处和新疆东南部地区,延长率为20.1 d/10 a。EMD和线性倾向估计的结果基本一致,但EMD得到的春季起始日推迟地区的范围更大,夏、秋、冬季起始日以及生长期的变化趋势更显著。