Buried humus horizons of flooded soils of the Selenga river delta

Presented are the results derived from investigating the buried humus horizons in flooded soils of the Selenga delta. A study of the morphology, chemical properties and composition of soil humus showed that the buried horizons are the product of evolution of soil cover across the territory which serve as filtrates of substances.     

金沙江干热河谷典型区（云南）退化土壤的结构性与形成机制

云南金沙江干热河谷区是我国典型的土壤退化区域。通过分析土壤机械组成、团聚体及微团聚体组成、孔隙分布状况等指标，探讨了土壤结构对土壤退化的影响机制。研究发现：1．采用分散率、侵蚀率、团聚度、团聚状况、结构体破坏率、受蚀性指数EVA、孔隙度等量化指标可以较好反映土壤退化程度；2．土壤颗粒分散特性、土壤水稳性团聚体稳定性、土壤孔隙度是土壤结构稳定性评价的三个重要方面，也可反映土壤退化特征。     

Use of soil horizons for assessing soil degradation and reconstructing chronology of degradation processes: the case of Mwisanga Catchment, Kondoa, central Tanzania

This paper analyses the use of soil horizons for mapping soil degradation intensity and reconstructing chronology of degradation processes. Through “Pedogenetic Baseline Approach”, the catchment was classified into two categories: the erosional and depositional zones. The eroded soils were reconstructed even in those areas where there had been total soil stripping. Profiles of the undegraded soil provided a reference mark (particularly the argillic B horizon of Lixisols). One specific criterion for determining the degree of soil degradation of a given map unit in the erosional zone was based on whether A or B horizons or both had been eroded. Another criterion for classifying the units in the depositional zone was based on relating the quality of the buried soil with the overlying young soil developed from the colluvium/alluvium. Hence, the study underscores the importance of being able to reconstruct soil properties of pre-eroded soil profiles with the view to determining erosion units. This will eventually help in developing appropriate land use and conservation strategies.     

SOIL CATENAS,TROPICAL DEFORESTATION,AND ANCIENT AND CONTEMPORARY SOIL EROSION IN THE PETéN,GUATEMALA

The Petexbatún region of Guatemala's Petén tropical forest lowlands has been largely deforested since the early 1980s as landless peasants have turned even national parks into milpas. The soils of these tropical forest, karst landscapes are known mainly from small-scale maps and archaeological investigations. This paper investigates soil catenas and natural slope processes from the region's last virgin tropical forests and compares these with catenas and processes on slashed and burned slopes. Soils were sampled and analyzed for physical, fertility, and taxonomic measures. This primary forest toposequence forms a typical downward translocation catena, with the thickest soils (>200 cm) in depressions, the thinnest soils on shoulder slopes, and moderately thin soils on the crests and backslopes. Most crest and sloping soils are Lithic Rendolls and contain simple O-A-C horizon sequences, and most soils have little sign of either eluviation or illuviation. A few deeper soils on the slopes are Vertic Rendolls and have moderate slick-ensides, whereas footslopes and seasonally drained depressions are well developed Vertisols. The primary forest soil catena was compared with two slash-and-burn milpas, one with comparable slopes and one with steeper slopes. The comparably sloped milpa had soil thicknesses that were 7.9 to 13.8 cm thinner, truncated horizons, and physical evidence of erosion. The steeper milpa had soil thicknesses that were 11.1 to 18.2 cm thinner and also had truncated horizons and physical evidence of erosion. Where ancient Maya terraces (Late Classic, ca. 550 to 830 A.D.) are present in the slash-and-burn landscape, an average of 25 to 46.5 cm soil remain upslope and 9.3 to 16.1 cm remain downslope. The findings show high soil truncation rates and erosion to bedrock in a decade in one place, though ancient Maya terraces are still holding 2.7 to 3.6 times more soil than the surrounding hillslopes. Despite high modern erosion, lake sediments show surprisingly low soil losses in the Maya Late Classic during the period of the most intensive land use. In contrast, studies at Copán, Honduras and in the northern Petén, where terrace evidence is scant, show high rates of erosion during this period. [Key words: soil catenas, tropical deforestation, milpa, soil erosion, Maya Lowlands.]     

Integrating soils and geomorphology in mountains—an example from the Front Range of Colorado

Soil distribution in high mountains reflects the impact of several soil-forming factors. Soil geomorphologists use key pedological properties to estimate ages of Quaternary deposits of various depositional environments, estimate long-term stability and instability of landscapes, and make inferences on past climatic change. Once the influence of the soil-forming factors is known, soils can be used to help interpret some aspects of landscape evolution that otherwise might go undetected.The Front Range of Colorado rises from the plains of the Colorado Piedmont at about 1700 m past a widespread, dissected Tertiary erosion surface between 2300 and 2800 m up to an alpine Continental Divide at 3600 to over 4000 m. Pleistocene valley glaciers reached the western edge of the erosion surface. Parent rocks are broadly uniform (granitic and gneissic). Climate varies from 46 cm mean annual precipitation (MAP) and 11 °C mean annual temperature (MAT) in the plains to 102 cm and −4 °C, respectively, near the range crest. Vegetation follows climate with grassland in the plains, forest in the mountains, and tundra above 3450 m. Soils reflect the bioclimatic transect from plains to divide: A/Bw or Bt/Bk or K (grassland) to A/E/Bw or Bt/C (forest) to A/Bw/C (tundra). Corresponding soil pH values decrease from 8 to less than 5 with increasing elevation. The pedogenic clay minerals dominant in each major vegetation zone are: smectite (grassland), vermiculite (forest), and 1.0–1.8 nm mixed-layer clays (tundra). Within the lower forested zone, the topographic factor (aspect) results in more leached, colder soils, with relatively thin O horizons, well-expressed E horizons and Bt horizons (Alfisols) on N-facing slopes, whereas soils with thicker A horizons, less developed or no E horizons, and Bw or Bt horizons (Mollisols) are more common on S-facing slopes. The topographic factor in the tundra results in soil patterns as a consequence of wind-redistributed snow and the amount of time it lingers on the landscape. An important parent material factor is airborne dust, which results in fine-grained surface horizons and, if infiltrated, contributes to clay accumulation in some Bt horizons. The time factor is evaluated by soil chronosequence studies of Quaternary deposits in tundra, upper forest, and plains grassland. Few soils in the study area are >10,000 years old in the tundra, >100,000 years old in the forest, and >2 million years old in the grassland. Stages of granite weathering vary with distance from the Continental Divide and the best developed is grus near the sedimentary/granitic rock contact just west of the mountain front. Grus takes a minimum of 100,000 years to form.Some of the relations indicated by the soil map patterns are: (1) parts of the erosion surface have been stable for 100,000 years or more; (2) development of grus near the mountain front could be due in part to pre-Pennsylvanian weathering; (3) a few soil properties reflect Quaternary paleoclimate; and (4) a correlation between soil development in the canyons and stream incision rates.     

我国水土流失典型区土壤表土结皮敏感性

表土结皮是降雨与土壤共同作用下的产物,某一土壤是否结皮、结皮的敏感程度如何,取决于该土壤的性质及所处地区的降雨情况。我国广泛分布着多种理化性质迥异的土壤,尤其是黄土、紫色土、红壤和黑土分布在我国水土流失严重的区域。但是,土壤发育表土结皮的敏感性很少见报道。本文通过分析模拟降雨试验结果及前人研究结论,提出了影响表土结皮发育敏感性的3个关键因素,并基于此对我国四大水土流失典型区土壤表土结皮的敏感性进行了分析。研究表明:细颗粒,尤其是粉粒是表土结皮发育的物质基础;团聚体稳定性是表土结皮发育快慢及程度的决定因素;高强度降雨是表土结皮发育的必要条件。黄土高原地区土壤极易发育表土结皮,四川紫色土区土壤发育表土结皮的概率大,南方红壤区除花岗岩、页岩外其他母岩上发育的土壤很难发育表土结皮,东北典型黑土不发育表土结皮,而非典型黑土易发育表土结皮。     

东北典型黑土区气候 、 地貌演化与黑土发育关系

通过野外实地调查,利用地层学方法结合孢粉分析结果,研究了黑土区地层地貌的发育历史、地层序列以及古气候变化,重建黑土、黑钙土的发育历史及发育所需的地貌、气候条件。结果表明,黑土从温暖湿润的晚更新世早期便开始在嫩江的二、三级阶地上发育,而黑钙土则从全新世初开始在嫩江的一级阶地上发育,这时气候处于暖干期,且一级阶地地势较低,水位相对较高,容易接受上方高地淋洗下来的钙,从而在土壤中形成比较典型的淀积层。可见,地貌条件及气候因素对黑土、黑钙土的形成发育起到至关重要的作用。研究结果为黑土区的水土保持及土壤改良研究提供理论基础,同时为正确评估黑土层的侵蚀速率及制订合理的改良措施提供科学的参考。     

土地利用方式对土壤有机碳和团聚体组分特征的影响

以广东省内第四纪红色黏土、玄武岩和花岗岩母质发育的土壤为研究对象,采集不同土地利用方式（水田、旱地、林地、果园/草地）下表层（0~15 cm）和亚表层（15~30 cm）土壤,研究土壤有机碳及其组分（腐殖质碳、易氧化有机碳）、土壤团聚体及其稳定性,分析土壤有机碳及其组分与土壤团聚体及其稳定性之间的相互关系。结果表明：土地利用类型、成土母质等影响土壤有机碳及其组分。3种母质发育的土壤中,各腐殖质组分占有机碳的比例是胡敏酸碳（HAC）＜富里酸碳（FAC）＜胡敏素碳（HMC）,第四纪红色黏土母质发育土壤腐殖酸碳（HAC＋FAC）以草地最高、水田最低;玄武岩、花岗岩母质发育土壤腐殖酸碳以果园最高。土壤中易氧化有机碳所占比例均高于惰性态,第四纪红色黏土母质发育土壤易氧化有机碳占有机碳比例以草地最高、旱地最低;玄武岩、花岗岩为果园最高、林地最低。3种母质发育土壤团聚体（湿筛）主要以＜0.25 mm微团聚体为主,表层土壤＞0.25 mm团聚体所占比例、团聚体平均重量直径（MWD）、团聚体破坏率（PAD）大于亚表层。土壤有机碳各组分均随着有机碳质量分数的增加而增加,＞0.25 mm团聚体质量分数和团聚体MWD随着土壤有机碳及其组分质量分数的增加而增大;PAD随着土壤易氧化碳组分质量分数增加而降低,易氧化有机碳组分有利于土壤中形成较大的团聚体,并增加团聚体水稳性。     

南亚热带丘陵赤红壤理化性质变化及其原因

本文研究了南亚热带丘陵赤红壤物理、化学性质变 (退 )化的特征及其原因。结果表明 ,丘陵赤红壤在物理性质退化方面 ,主要表现在土壤团聚体稳定性下降、土壤孔隙性和土壤水分性能变劣 ;在化学性质退化方面 ,主要表现在养分贫瘠化、保肥供肥能力降低。植被破坏会引起土壤养分减少、保肥供肥能力降低 ,有机质的减少是丘陵赤红壤物理性质退化的主要原因。有必要保护植被、提高土壤有机质含量 ,以防止丘陵赤红壤理化性质退化     

试论伏牛山南坡土壤垂直分异规律——兼论亚热带北界的划分

在野外土壤调查和室内土壤理化分析的基础上,开展了伏牛山南坡土壤组成和性质垂直分异、土壤类型划分以及亚热带北界问题的讨论。研究表明：(1) 调查断面上土壤表层HA/FA随高度增加而增大,且均小于1,海拔900 m左右土壤胡敏酸的芳构化程度最低;随高度增加土壤pH和盐基饱和度先下降后上升;海拔900 m以下的土壤中均有明显的黏化层,向上土壤黏粒淋溶淀积逐渐减弱;海拔900 m以下的土壤土体风化程度高,大部分氧化物的平均迁移系数和土体淋溶率小于1,土体Saf小于5.06,淀积层游离铁含量大于20 g·kg-1,铁游离度大于40%,具有弱富铁铝作用,剖面中出现明显的铁锰新生体,而向上土体风化程度减弱,不发生富铁铝作用,剖面中不出现铁锰新生体。(2) 伏牛山南坡海拔550 m以下出现黏磐黄褐土 (饱和黏磐湿润淋溶土),550~950 m出现普通黄棕壤 (普通铁质湿润淋溶土),950~1900 m出现棕壤 (普通简育湿润淋溶土或暗沃简育湿润雏形土),1900 m以上出现暗棕壤性土或草甸暗棕壤 (暗沃冷凉湿润雏形土)。(3) 伏牛山南坡亚热带北界约在海拔950 m。     

东北黑土水土流失特点

东北黑土区是中国的主要粮食生产基地。黑土水土流失和肥力退化一直是东北农业持续发展必须面对的问题。文章以黑土为对象,分析了水土流失的方式和特点。黑土流失面积虽大,但侵蚀的土壤物质大部分没有进入河道,而是在黑土景观的低洼部位堆积下来,形成侵蚀和堆积共存的土壤物质再分布景观特征。合理的农业管理措施,如等高耕作和保护性耕作可以在很大程度上控制黑土侵蚀,保持和恢复黑土肥力。     

The soils of Culbin forest, Morayshire: their evolution and morphology, with reference to their forestry potential

A brief account of the environmental conditions within Culbin forest is provided as a background to tracing the evolution of the area since late Glacial time. Where possible, the events are placed in historical order and the development and morphological characteristics of the soils are discussed.With the exception of the humus podsols, which are developed on an old dune system, the soils lack profile development. However, since the establishment of a tree canopy, soil horizon development has been initiated and a weakly developed iron podsol has been extensively mapped. Otherwise, the soils are classified as regosols. with some low-lying soils assigned to a gleyic subgroup. The widespread occurrence of buried peat and alluvial horizons was noted during fieldwork, and mapping units that incorporate these important horizons have been separated.Investigation into the potential of each of the mapping units for forestry reveals that where buried horizons are present significant increases in yield class can be anticipated: elsewhere nitrogen and general nutrient deficiency have seriously affected tree growth, which is only mediocre in performance. However, recent work has shown that a dramatic increase in yield class can be brought about with the application of fertilizer.     

Stream-terrace genesis: implications for soil development

Genesis of three distinct types of stream terraces can be understood through application of the concepts of tectonically induced downcutting, base level of erosion, complex response, threshold of critical power, diachronous and synchronous response times, and static and dynamic equilibrium. Climatic and tectonic stream terraces are major terraces below which flights of minor complex-response degradation terraces can form.These three types of terraces can be summarized by describing a downcutting-aggradation-renewed downcutting sequence for streams with gravell bedload. By tectonically induced downcutting, streams degrade to achieve and maintain a dynamic equilibrium longitudinal profile at the base level of erosion. Lateral erosion bevels bedrock beneath active channels to create major straths that are the fundamental tectonic stream-terrace landform. Aggradation events record brief reversals of long-term tectonically induced downcutting because they raise active channels. They may be considered as major (the result of climatic perturbations) or minor (the result of complex-response model types of perturbations). Climatically controlled aggradation followed by degradation leaves an aggradation surface; this type of fill-terrace tread is the fundamental climatic stream-terrace landform. Aggradation surfaces may be buried by subsequent episodes of deposition unless intervening tectonically induced downcutting is sufficient for younger aggradation surfaces to form below older surfaces. Raising of the active channel by either tectonic uplift or by climatically induced aggradation provides the vertical space for degradation terraces to form; first in alluvial fill and then in underlying bedrock along tectonically active streams. These are complex-response terraces because they result from interactions of dependent variables within a given fluvial system. Pauses in degradation to a new base level of erosion, and/or minor episodes of backfilling, lead to formation of complex-response fill-cut and strath, or of fill terraces. Fill-cut terraces are formed in alluvium; they are complex-response terraces because they are higher than the base level of erosion. Good exposures and dating are needed to distinguish static equilibrium complex-response minor strath terraces from dynamic equilibrium tectonic (major) straths. Strath terraces may be regarded as complex-response terraces where degradation rates between times terrace-tread formation exceed the long-term uplift rate for the reach based on ages and positions of tectonic terraces.Late Quaternary global climatic changes control aggradation events and even the times of cutting of major (tectonic) straths, because the base level of erosion can not be attained during times of climatically driven aggradation-degradation events.Most terrace soils form on treads of climatic and complex-response terraces. Aggradation surfaces may provide an ideal flight of terraces on which to study a soils chronosequence. Each aggradation event is recorded by a single relict soil where tectonically induced downcutting is sufficient to provide clear altitudinal separation of the terrace treads. Multiple paleosols are typical of tectonically stable regions where younger aggradation events spread alluvium over treads of older climatic terraces. Pedons on a climatic terrace in a small fluvial system commonly are roughly synchronous - variations of soil properties that can be attributed to temporal differences will be minor compared to altitudinally controlled climatic factors. Climatic terraces of adjacent watersheds also should be roughly synchronous (correlatable) - variations of soil properties that can be attributed to temporal differences will be minor compared to lithologic and climatic factors between different watersheds. Such generalizations may not apply to basins with sufficient relief that geomorphic responses to climatic changes occur at different and overlapping times, and to large rivers whose widely separated reaches are characterized by different response times to climatic perturbations. Soils on climatic terraces of distant watershedswill not be synchronous if their respective aggradation events occur during full-glacial times and interglacial times. Soils on some complex-response terraces may be diachronous within a given fluvial system, and typically are diachronous between watersheds.     

Aggregatstabilitetsanalyse

Madsen, Henrik, 1975: Aggregatstabilitetsanalyse. Geografisk Tidsskrift 74: 70–78. København, juni 1, 1975.

A method to describe the stability and size distribution of soil aggregates by dry sifting. The profit and disadvantages of the method are discussed. A methematical adaption is given and further the influence of humus on the soil aggregates is discussed, as well as the possibility of the method for giving significant values in relation to soil erosion.     

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF INTENSE PREHISTORIC SOIL EROSION IN THE HIGHLANDS OF CENTRAL JORDAN

Soils and alluvial sediments in two wadi systems provide preliminary evidence of intense prehistoric soil erosion in the Plateau of Central Jordan. Magnetic susceptibility, color, secondary carbonate morphology, and soil structure suggest that, at the end of the Pleistocene, red Mediterranean soils (terra rossa soils) extended into areas that today are dry steppes on desert fringes. The chronological correlation between alluvial depositional events and cultural phases in the context of climatic change in the Levant suggests that climatic fluctuations at the end of the Pleistocene, which were characterized by gradual drying and warming, triggered several consecutive cycles of soil erosion. There is also evidence to suggest that the advent of early farming in the early Holocene played an important role in the continuation of soil erosion processes. The results of this preliminary research suggest that studies of ancient soil erosion in this region, red Mediterranean soils are a useful chronological and pedological datum to be correlated with alluvial and colluvial deposits. [Key words: soil erosion, alluvial sequences, red Mediterranean soils, Levant, Jordan, Middle East, soil properties.]     

Deriving indicators of soil degradation from soil aggregation studies in southeastern Spain and southern France

Soil degradation is perceived as a major threat in the Mediterranean region due to changes in land-use and possible future climate change. Soil aggregation parameters are used here to demonstrate their potential as a key-indicator for land degradation studies. The monitoring of these indicators offers a means of establishing the vulnerability and resilience of geo-ecosystems. Soil aggregation stability and distribution were studied on soils with an open shrubby vegetation cover, from several places in southeastern Spain and southern France, by applying drop tests and determining aggregate size distributions. Aspect and vegetation cover were incorporated in the soil sampling. Several indices were derived from these analyses to indicate the degree of soil aggregation. This was done by referencing to a base level of aggregation (bare soil aggregation). It was found that soil aggregates were more stable and were often coarser under vegetation, when compared to their immediate surrounding bare areas. A similar, slightly less clear effect was noted on N-facing exposed slopes when compared to S-facing exposed slopes. Long-term changes were found by studying cultivated land, abandoned fields and land covered by semi-natural vegetation, on comparable substrate and comparable land units. It is clear that soil aggregation and aggregate stability increases with time (years). It is argued that soil aggregation indices can be used as a key-indicator for degradation processes at a fine scale with implications for runoff and sediment generating processes at the hillslope scale.     

Wind erosion in the central Ebro Basin under changing land use management. Field experiments with a portable wind tunnel

The agricultural landscape in the semi-arid central Ebro Basin is changing from dry farming towards land abandonment. This study aims to describe quantitatively the influence of this land use change onto wind erosion susceptibility in this region. Additionally, the effects of tillage operations on wind erosion rates were evaluated. A portable wind tunnel was used to assess the relative sediment loss rates at three test sites near Zaragoza. Three different land use systems varying in crust disturbance level were investigated – (1) fallow land with undisturbed physical soil crusts, (2) simulated sheep trampling and (3) conventional tillage (dry farming).The results show that simulations on undisturbed crusted soils produce little soil loss. Consequently, wind erosion can be considered as negligible on these surfaces. Simulated sheep trampling during wind tunnel test runs produce 10 times higher sediment losses than simulations on undisturbed crusted soils. Highest sediment losses (50 times) were observed from rolled surfaces. Because of the ongoing extensification process, the distributions of physical soil crusts will most probably further increase. According to the results, this would lead to a reduction of wind erosion susceptibility in the central Ebro Basin depending on intensity and time of sheep pasturing and tillage.     

坡耕地侵蚀过程与土壤理化特性演变

坡耕地水土流失问题问题是制约生态农业建设与可持续发展的重要因素，探讨坡耕地土壤侵蚀过程和土壤退化机制是解决问题的关键。基于这些问题，本文应用人工模拟降雨试验方法，研究了坡耕地壤侵蚀发生发展过程，以及侵蚀过程中土壤物理化学特性的演变规律；明确了不同中下坡面单位时间产沙三个过程特征；揭示了泥沙中不同粒级颗粒组成、团聚体和营养元素迁移规律及导致土壤退化加剧的原因；提出了防止坡耕地土壤侵蚀的方法。     

Preliminary reconstruction of sediment-source linkages for the past 6000 yr at the Petit Lac d'Annecy, France, based on mineral magnetic data

An 8 m core from the central plain of the Petit Lac d'Annecy, France, two floodplain cores, river bedload sediments and several hundred soil samples from the catchment have been studied using magnetic techniques. The soils, mainly developed on limestones and local glacial tills, show widespread magnetic enhancement with higher ferrimagnetic concentrations and contents of SP grains than found in the lake sediments. Some soils show significant concentrations of canted antiferromagnetic minerals (mainly haematite). Using magnetic quotient parameters the surface soils are classified into four mineralogical types. The lake and floodplain sediment properties over the past 6000 yrs can largely be explained by the erosion and deposition of these sources, with a smaller superimposed biogenic (magnetosomes) signal. Derived sediment-source linkages allow the construction of several hypotheses about geomorphological changes in the catchment system: (i) the long-term erosion of high altitude unweathered substrates has gradually increased towards the present day; (ii) the erosion of high altitude soils has increased within the last 1000 yrs, possibly during the period of the 'Little Ice Age'; (iii) shifts towards an increased erosion of surface lowland soil occurred ~2000 and 1000 yrs ago and may be linked to an accelerated accretion of floodplain overbank deposits; (iv) there has been a significant storage of surface soil within floodplains, which leads to an underestimation of the importance of soil erosion in the lake sediment records; (v) the sediment transported by high magnitude, low frequency flood events has shifted in source from high altitude soils before ~1000 cal. yr BP to lowland and mid-altitude free draining soils after ~1000 cal. yr BP.