Application of a 3D photorealistic model for the geological analysis of the Permian carbonates (Khuff Formation) in Saudi Arabia

Three dimensional (3D) photorealistic models of geological outcrops have the potential to enhance the teaching of earth sciences by providing scale models in a virtual reality environment. These models can be run on low-cost desktop computers. Photorealistic models for geological outcrops are a digital illustration of outcrop photographs with either a point cloud representation or Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) mesh of the outcrop surface. The level of detail for these models is dependent on the target resolutions (physical and optical) that were used during data acquisition. In addition, the technique in which the data is rendered as a digital model affects the level of detail that can be observed by the geologists. A colored point cloud representation is suitable for large-scale features, but fine details are lost when the geologist zooms in to view the model close up. In contrast, a photorealistic model that is constructed from photographs draped onto a triangle mesh surface derived from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) point clouds provides a level of detail that is restricted only by the resolution of the photographs.     

利用数字露头模型技术对曲流河三角洲沉积储层特征的研究

数字露头模型技术（DOM）是利用三维可视化技术虚拟露头表面,建立由一系列结构多边形构成的初步模型体,进而在模型体上叠加露头剖面所有数字化地质信息,包括三维地面激光雷达数据、遥感图像、高精度灰度照片、探地雷达数据等露头地质剖面所有地质学信息数字化数据,实现多种地质特征综合解释与测量的数字露头模型技术,已在野外露头剖面上沉积体系三维储层建模、岩性分类、构造断裂精细解译等方面研究发挥作用。本文为准确刻画沉积体系砂体与储集层空间分布特征,尝试利用数字露头模型技术,对鄂尔多斯盆地延长组曲流河三角洲平原河道砂体空间分布特征精确测量与描述,实测不同位置河道砂体储集性能,并利用探地雷达数据预测露头区域地下砂体形态特征,综合建立砂体三维空间分布模型,为储层精细对比研究提供依据。数字露头模型显示:（1）潭家河剖面河道形态明显,砂体呈顶平底凸的透镜体,横向延伸192 m,最厚处约14 m,河道与围岩切割关系明显,内部为4期沉积充填,整体表现为复合正韵律;（2）曲流河三角洲平原的分支河道砂体呈孤立状,砂体侧向迁移,垂向多期叠加,砂体在探地雷达剖面上反射特征表明,地面之下曲流河三角洲平原的分支河道砂体也呈孤立状,横向迁移频繁;横向上不同期次砂体宽度分别为192.4 m、32.54 m、41.83 m以及79.97 m,厚度对应为14 m、4.52 m、3.85 m以及5.66 m,宽厚比平均为12∶1;（3）典型砂体储集物性解剖认为,三角洲平原分支河道砂体储集物性较差,储集物性空间分布特征表现为河道砂体内每期砂体下部物性优于上部,中间优于两翼,单期河道砂体最厚位置处储集性最好,孔隙度最高可达8%,渗透率为0.13×10-3 μm2。     

一种用于古生物与考古学之简单快速非接触性数位化三维化石方法

介绍一种简易非接触性的化石或考古样本制作数位影像三维模型的方法,可供诸多古生物学与考古学之应用,以一个从云南元谋县出土的恐龙头颅为制作范本;整个制作过程,仅需90分钟的时间,产生一个逼真全形全彩的三维模型。本方法所成结果,可用于博物馆展示,或用于古生物或考古学研究。此外,透过多种档案输出格式,数位化的数据,也可配合其它三维软体,如MayaTM,3DS-MaxTM等等,应用于其它下游领域,如恐龙形态学、个体发育学,或生物机械学研究、模拟、动态等等,以及透过数位车床等设备,制作复制品或快速初形制作,体积误差只有0.1%;本文以恐龙头颅介绍本方法的操作。     

基于计算机视觉的地形3D重建

构造3D地形模型有很多种方法．本文提出一种用数码相机获得的未标定照片获取三维地形模型的简单方法．这种方法仅需要从两幅或多幅照片中选取对应点,根据这些对应点,求出基本矩阵,摄像机矩阵,进而进行三维地形表面的估计,实验结果及算法分析表明,本文提出的特征匹配算法精确度较高,实现地形重建方法切实可行,生成的模型可视效果较好。     

基于智能岩性识别的爆破岩体三维实体模型建立

随着智能钻机的研发和使用,能够准确地获得爆破钻孔的岩性数据.通过建立炮孔数据库对智能识别的炮孔数据进行存储和管理;以炮孔岩性数据为样本,使用距离平方反比法对爆破区域范围内的实体单元进行插值,生成爆破岩体三维实体模型;使用爆破区域范围多边形和采场三角网先后对岩体三维实体模型进行裁切,得到裁切后的爆破岩体三维实体模型.使用...     

基于孔内影像的岩石节理粗糙度特征研究

目前对岩石结构表面粗糙度的研究往往只局限于地表,难以反映深部岩石节理粗糙度的特征。钻孔孔壁上节理轮廓线包含有三维信息的特点,本文开展了基于数字钻孔摄像技术的岩石节理粗糙度分形特征的研究,利用数字钻孔摄像系统获取地下深度岩石节理全景图,采用边缘检测技术从全景图中提取出节理轮廓线,对其进行空间变换和视距离变换得到地下岩石节理粗糙表面轮廓线的真实状况。与Barton提出的10条标准剖面曲线进行对比得到每条轮廓线的JRC值,并计算其分形维数,根据最小二乘法原理拟合出JRC与分形维数之间的关系为:(D)=JRC=-541.9x2+1362x-818.53。本文研究内容为描述地下深部天然节理的结构及其特征提供了基础,对更深入地研究地下深部岩石节理的表面空间状况有重要的意义。     

基于无人机倾斜摄影的三维数字露头表征技术

随着地质研究目标精细化和复杂化,地质体表征的尺度越来越小,难度越来越大,已有储层分布及预测的方法亟待改进。基于此,在分析传统野外地质考察局限性的基础上,介绍了无人机装置与倾斜摄影的技术特点,提出了基于无人机倾斜摄影的三维数字露头表征技术,利用无人机采集野外露头模型进行了储层构型分析。研究表明:1）传统野外地质考察至少有七方面的局限性;2）无人机倾斜摄影有明显的创新性和技术优势。采集处理后的数据模型带有三维坐标信息（经度、纬度、海拔）与图像信息,可以准确表征模型中任意位置点坐标和图像,因此,三维野外露头构型分析有了良好的资料基础;3）通过实例分析发现,采集处理后的模型精度高（分辨率约3~5 cm）,对砂体内部结构认识的定量化与精细化程度增高。无人机倾斜摄影技术不仅使数字露头成为现实,也是辅助地质学家进行高效野外考察的可靠技术。     

Mapping and analysing virtual outcrops

Laser scanning is a very efficient way to generate realistic, high-resolution digital models of 3-D geological outcrops. This paper discusses the methodologies involved in the creation and analysis of virtual outcrops, based on laser scanner data. The visualisation of the laser scanner data as a photorealistic 3-D object is described. Geological features picked out on the virtual outcrop (e.g. fractures, faults or bedding planes) can be extrapolated outward, into space, and inward, into the subsurface, using tension surfaces.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at Reviewed by: J.D. Clemens, D. Yuen     

Surveying and modeling of rock discontinuities by terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetry: Semi-automatic approaches for linear outcrop inspection

Rock face diagnosis is a monitoring operation that is used to optimize rock-risk treatment works in terms of ensuring that safety requirements are met at the lowest cost. Diagnoses require measuring the location and orientation of rock discontinuities at the surface of the rock mass. These measurements are then entered into a structural model that extrapolates the data collected at the surface to the inner part of the rock mass. Currently, most surveys are empirical and are carried out manually using a compass-clinometer. In addition, they tend to examine only the most highly fractured area of a rock face, even though safety considerations demand an exhaustive study of the whole face. These deficiencies can be overcome by using dense 3D measurement techniques such as terrestrial laser scanning and optical imaging to obtain a more complete 3D model and structural statement. Hence, we have developed a semi-automatic process that allows 3D models to be combined with the results of field surveys in order to provide more precise analyses of rock faces, for example, by classifying rock discontinuities into subsets according to their orientation. Further research is being carried out in order to combine 3D data and 2D digital images as a support for structural survey. Trials carried out in a limestone quarry in the French Alps allowed us to compare data sets obtained using manual surveying methods, the well-known laser scanning method and the lower-cost photogrammetric survey method.     

顶板诱导崩落爆破效果的全景探测与评价

基于连续采矿的顶板诱导崩落技术,采用预裂爆破控制裂隙发展区间,强制崩顶爆破诱导顶板围岩裂隙发育、扩展,从而诱导顶板致裂失稳的可控崩落。然而在地下采空区顶板诱导致裂失稳崩落处理采空区过程中,预裂与崩顶爆破效果具有极大的隐蔽性,难以进行直观可视的评价。采用钻孔摄像系统,利用前视与全景可视技术,对顶板诱导爆破前钻孔形态和爆破的效果进行了探测,特别在爆破后的全景钻孔摄像,数字化描述了钻孔的裂隙特征,并通过钻孔摄像的图片分析评价了顶板诱导崩落爆破效果。全景探测的结果表明：（1）预裂爆破在顶板岩体中形成了清晰可见宽为20～40 mm的预裂缝,炮孔底部存在半个孔壁的预裂特征。（2）顶板围岩中产生了大量的次生诱导微裂隙带,裂隙交错呈“X”型,并且原生裂隙得到了扩展。（3）顶板诱导爆破实施后爆堆形状良好,大量裂隙发育以及碎裂岩体结构的形成有利于顶板的诱导可控崩落。     

基于神经网络的直接线性变换在地质力学模型试验中的应用

三维地质力学模型的变形数据主要由岩体内部变形和收敛变形两部分构成。寻找满足高精度位移测量的收敛变形观测方法已成为三维地质力学模型试验数据采集的重要研究方向。修正了传统的数码相机摄影测量基于图像坐标变换的计算思路,改善了试验中5×5小模板作业方式,采用大模板标准点布设方案和标志点相邻坐标数据点的选择方法,有效地减小了镜头畸变对标准点、标志点的影响。基于BP神经网络的直接线性变换原理进行了图像间的坐标识别和试验阶段测量观测点的坐标比较,实现了三维地质力学模型的收敛变形观测。将数码相机数字近景摄影方法应用于某大型分岔隧道的三维地质力学模型试验研究,取得了满意的研究成果。     

Regional fracture network permeability using outcrop scale measurements

Estimating the hydraulic properties of fractured aquifers is challenging due to the complexity of structural discontinuities that can generally be measured at a small scale, either in core or in outcrop, but influence groundwater flow over a range of scales. This modeling study uses fracture scanline data obtained from surface bedrock exposures to derive estimates of permeability that can be used to represent the fractured rock matrix within regional scale flow models. The model is developed using PETREL, which traditionally benefits from high resolution data sets obtained during oil and gas exploration, including for example seismic data, and borehole logging data (both lithological and geophysical). The technique consists of interpreting scanline fracture data, and using these data to generate representative Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) models for each field set. The DFN models are then upscaled to provide an effective hydraulic conductivity tensor that represents the fractured rock matrix. For each field site, the upscaled hydraulic conductivities are compared with estimates derived from pumping tests to validate the model. A hydraulic conductivity field is generated for the study region that captures the spatial variability of fracture networks in pseudo-three dimensions from scanline data. Hydraulic conductivities estimated using this approach compare well with those estimated from pumping test data. The study results suggest that such an approach may be feasible for taking small scale fracture data and upscaling these to represent the aquifer matrix hydraulic properties needed for regional groundwater modeling.     

Hillslope Topography from Unconstrained Photographs

Quantifications of Earth surface topography are essential for modeling the connections between physical and chemical processes of erosion and the shape of the landscape. Enormous investments are made in developing and testing process-based landscape evolution models. These models may never be applied to real topography because of the difficulties in obtaining high-resolution (1–2 m) topographic data in the form of digital elevation models (DEMs). Here we present a simple methodology to extract the high-resolution three-dimensional topographic surface from photographs taken with a hand-held camera with no constraints imposed on the camera positions or field survey. This technique requires only the selection of corresponding points in three or more photographs. From these corresponding points the unknown camera positions and surface topography are simultaneously estimated. We compare results from surface reconstructions estimated from high-resolution survey data from field sites in the Oregon Coast Range and northern California to verify our technique. Our most rigorous test of the algorithms presented here is from the soil-mantled hillslopes of the Santa Cruz marine terrace sequence. Results from three unconstrained photographs yield an estimated surface, with errors on the order of 1 m, that compares well with high-resolution GPS survey data and can be used as an input DEM in process-based landscape evolution modeling.     

节理迹线中点密度修正方法的探讨

节理迹线中点密度是描述岩体露头节理分布特征的重要指标。由于露头或测窗尺寸的限制、节理迹长的差异以及露头面和节理面夹角的变化,常规的迹线中点密度计算方法通常包含尺寸、截长和角度误差。本文首先介绍了截长、尺寸和角度误差的修正原理,继而将角度误差修正系数引入到关联点密度计算方法中,提出了凸面测窗条件下同时修正截长、尺寸和角度误差的迹线中点密度计算方法。利用三维节理网络建模技术,模拟生成不同方位、不同大小和不同形状的测窗,系统分析了尺寸、截长和角度误差对迹线中点密度的影响,验证了新方法的有效性。最后,针对我国高放废物地质处置北山坑探设施的硐口岩体露头,实现了节理迹线中点密度分析。上述算例和应用表明,新方法可以有效地修正截长、尺寸和角度误差,可以为估算岩体节理分布密度提供更为可靠的依据。     

High precision analysis of an embryonic extensional fault-related fold using 3D orthorectified virtual outcrops: The viewpoint importance in structural geology

Image-based 3D modeling has recently opened the way to the use of virtual outcrop models in geology. An intriguing application of this method involves the production of orthorectified images of outcrops using almost any user-defined point of view, so that photorealistic cross-sections suitable for numerous geological purposes and measurements can be easily generated. These purposes include the accurate quantitative analysis of fault-fold relationships starting from imperfectly oriented and partly inaccessible real outcrops. We applied the method of image-based 3D modeling and orthorectification to a case study from the northern Apennines, Italy, where an incipient extensional fault affecting well-layered limestones is exposed on a 10-m-high barely accessible cliff. Through a few simple steps, we constructed a high-quality image-based 3D model of the outcrop. In the model, we made a series of measurements including fault and bedding attitudes, which allowed us to derive the bedding-fault intersection direction. We then used this direction as viewpoint to obtain a distortion-free photorealistic cross-section, on which we measured bed dips and thicknesses as well as fault stratigraphic separations. These measurements allowed us to identify a slight difference (i.e. only 0.5°) between the hangingwall and footwall cutoff angles. We show that the hangingwall strain required to compensate the upward-decreasing displacement of the fault was accommodated by this 0.5° rotation (i.e. folding) and coeval 0.8% thickening of strata in the hangingwall relatively to footwall strata. This evidence is consistent with trishear fault-propagation folding. Our results emphasize the viewpoint importance in structural geology and therefore the potential of using orthorectified virtual outcrops.     

Influence of three-dimensional roughness of rock fracture on seepage characteristics based on the digital image technology

Digital image processing technology can objectively reflect the surface roughness of coal and rock mass fractures and turn physical properties such as fluctuation height to physical data of the rock fracture surface to be used for numerical analyses; thus, it can effectively be applied to the seepage flow analysis of rock fractures. First, clear digital images of the fracture surface height are obtained under the same camera conditions, and then characteristic function values specific to various structure are normalized. Subsequently, the fluctuation height distribution of the rock surface is restored according to the measured fluctuation heights of local points. Finally, according to the surface fluctuation of fractures, invasive restructuring is carried out for three-dimensional fractures in the same coordinate system. Obtained physical parameters on the three-dimensional fractures of the rock are inputted into the COMSOL Multiphysics software to obtain the characteristic three-dimensional model of the rock fracture surface. The numerical analysis results are compared with experimental data on fracture seepage obtained from a seepage coupling true triaxial test system, and the relevance between the simulated result and the physical experiment is higher than 90%, which confirms that the integration of the digital image technology and the numerical analysis method can effectively simulate seepage in rough fractures. The hydraulic gradient of rough fractures and seepage velocity are also consistent with Forchheimer flow characteristics.     

基于钻孔摄像技术的岩体完整性评价方法

通过钻孔摄像技术获取岩体的结构特性,提出一种评价岩体完整性的新方法--RMDI法,并应用于开滦煤矿唐山矿区数字钻孔摄像工程地质勘测中的离层孔。结果表明：（1）高精度的钻孔图像能为岩体完整性评价提供可靠的结果;（2）DIDF能反映钻孔壁岩体完整程度的轴向分布状况;（3）RMDI法用于评价岩体完整性是可行的;（4）RMDI法能实现全孔段或局部孔段的岩体完整性评价,完成对岩体不同完整段的位置搜索。     

Estimation of Block Sizes for Rock Masses with Non-persistent Joints

Summary  Discontinuities or joints in the rock mass have various shapes and sizes. Along with the joint orientation and spacing, the joint persistence, or the relative size of the joint, is one of the most important factors in determining the block sizes of jointed rock masses. Although the importance of joint persistence on the overall rock mass strength has long been identified, the impact of persistence on rock strength is in most current rock mass classification systems underrepresented. If joints are assumed to be persistent, as is the case in most designs, the sizes of the rock blocks tend to be underestimated. This can lead to more removable blocks than actually exist in-situ. In addition, a poor understanding of the rock bridge strength may lead to lower rock mass strengths, and consequently, to excessive expenditure on rock support. In this study, we suggest and verify a method for the determination of the block sizes considering joint persistence. The idea emerges from a quantitative approach to apply the GSI system for rock mass classification, in which the accurate block size is required. There is a need to statistically analyze how the distribution of rock bridges according to the combination of joint orientation, spacing, and persistence will affect the actual size of each individual block. For this purpose, we generate various combinations of joints with different geometric conditions by the orthogonal arrays using the distinct element analysis tools of UDEC and 3DEC. Equivalent block sizes (areas in 2D and volumes in 3D) and their distributions are obtained from the numerical simulation. Correlation analysis is then performed to relate the block sizes predicted by the empirical equation to those obtained from the numerical model simulation. The results support the concept of equivalent block size proposed by Cai et al. (2004, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 41(1), 3–19).     

基于DIC的3D打印交叉节理试件破裂机制研究

为研究交叉节理的存在对岩体破裂机制的影响,采用3D打印技术制备了可模拟岩体交叉结构面的节理模型,通过相似材料浇筑形成含预制交叉节理的试件,并基于数字图像相关技术（DIC）分析了单轴压缩下试件裂纹起裂、扩展及破坏模式。研究结果表明：采用3D打印技术制作的闭合节理模型,可以有效替代传统的切割、插缝等方法形成的张开型节理裂隙。基于此展开的试验结果表明,交叉节理存在会显著降低试件强度,且随着交叉角度的增大,试件强度先升高后降低,在45o和60o之间达到最大值,峰值应变与强度呈现相反的变化规律;裂纹扩展过程可分为微裂隙闭合阶段、微破裂发展阶段、主节理起裂扩展阶段和次节理迅速延伸阶段,这与应力?应变曲线各阶段一一对应。研究还发现,在交叉节理岩体中,次节理对破裂的影响主要体现在峰后阶段,结合最大畸变能理论表明,其对主节理尖端应力分布影响较小,主节理对岩体的破坏起绝对控制作用,这对岩体工程有一定的指导意义。