Biological effects of anthropogenic salt-load on the aquatic Fauna: A synthesis of 17 years of biological survey on the rivers Werra and Weser

The reduction and the smoothened amplitudes of the chloride concentrations since 2000 have resulted in a gradual positive development of the aquatic fauna in the River Werra. In the salinized section of the river increasing species numbers have been determined along the salinity gradient, which shows maximum chloride concentrations of about 2500 mg/l, maximum potash concentrations at approximately 200 mg/l, and magnesia concentrations peaked at 320 mg/l. As an immediate consequence of the reduction in salt concentration the immigration of various caddis fly species into the lower River Werra was observed. The Number of taxa per sample rose from 5 to more than 30 in the lower Werra region. Changes in species-richness could be seen more frequently in river sections where chloride concentrations fluctuated around 1500 mg/l.     

Effects of reduced salt concentrations on plant communities in the River Werra (Germany)

The reduction and equalization of the salt concentrations in the River Werra have resulted in a gradual recovery of the aquatic flora. Spatial high-resolution macrophyte mappings document the spread of the aquatic vascular plants in the middle and lower River Werra. Simultaneously, the plankton blooms have declined. Changes in the composition of the algal communities including diatoms also indicated lower salinity. In addition to the salinity, high nutrient concentrations, waste water discharges and structural degradation are important stressors in the River Werra as shown by e.g. low species richness of vascular plants and the common occurrence of pollution tolerant diatoms. From the existing data it is clear that an encompassing improvement of the ecological conditions in the River Werra can only be achieved by further restoration measures considering all stressors.     

Gas chromatographic analyses of Argo Merchant oil and sediment hydrocarbons at the wreck site

Hydrocarbon concentrations were determined in surface sediments in the vicinity of the Argo Merchant wreck site. Of the 4000 km² area surveyed, contaminated sediments were found in a 10–15 km² section around the wreck site in February 1977. The contamination was in the form of small tar particles (or oil droplets) inhomogeneously mixed into the sandy sediments by the turbulent shoal tidal currents. Although there was no clear trend of hydrocarbon concentrations as a function of depth, contamination extended at least to 8–13 cm in depth. Stations which were contaminated in February were reoccupied on a cruise in July 1977. Only one station showed any trace of hydrocarbon contamination and this level was significantly lower than found at this site in February.     

Veränderungen der Diatomeenflora der Werra unter dem Einfluß des Salzgehaltes

Under the influence of the wastewaters of the potash industry the Werra river shows considerably varying salt contents (0.47 … 28.2 g/l Cl^?, annual means 4.4 … 11.4 g/l Cl^?) in dependence on the hydrological situation. Between 1982 and 1988 a total of 112 taxa of diatoms were observed. Of special interest is the occurrence of Stauroneis constricta (EHRENBERG) CLEVE, which is new for the river Werra. Its spreading upstream was observed. Compared with earlier findings as well as within each annual cycle there are observed clear changes in the species present and in the colonization structures in dependence on the salt content. The close relations between the salt content and the diatom communities are truly expressed by the index of halobic organisms. Diversity indices of 1.048 … 3.259 as well as values of 0.074 … 0.817 for evenness verify the imbalance of the colonization, without, however, revealing a relation to the salt content, except for variations of concentration which may be too sudden.     

The European Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC in the evaluation of the ecological status of watercourses. Case study: the river Chienti (central Apennines,Italy)

The quality of the river Chienti (eastern‐central Apennines, Italy) has been evaluated according to the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC, taking into consideration both biotic (animal and vegetable) and chemical parameters. In studying the biotic component, two indices were used: the E.B.I, Extended Biotic Index (version adapted to the Italian rivers), based on macroinvertebrates, and the EPI‐D, the Eutrophication and/or Pollution Index, based on diatoms. For both macroinvertebrates and diatoms, two samplings were conducted, one in June and the other in October 2003. Instead, according to the Italian Law 152/99 the chemical and bacteriological analyses were conducted monthly for the entire year. The results of biomonitoring and chemical‐bacteriological analyses unanimously demonstrated a good ecological situation for the upper section of the Chienti, though the situation tends to worsen as the river continues its descent and undergoes increased anthropogenic pressure. Data obtained were correlated with Spearman's coefficients and principal component analysis. Both statistical calculations showed clear, direct correlation between the two biotic indices and an inverse correlation between these and the chemical and bacteriological parameters. However, a few differences of judgement that emerged among the various indices highlight the importance of using them simultaneously in order to obtain a more accurate diagnosis of the ecological status of the watercourses.     

Characterization and identification of na-cl sources in ground water

Elevated concentrations of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) in surface and ground water are common in the United States and other countries, and can serve as indicators of, or may constitute, a water quality problem. We have characterized the most prevalent natural and anthropogenic sources of Na+ and Cl- in ground water, primarily in Illinois, and explored techniques that could be used to identify their source. We considered seven potential sources that included agricultural chemicals, septic effluent, animal waste, municipal landfill leachate, sea water, basin brines, and road deicers. The halides Cl-, bromide (Br), and iodide (I) were useful indicators of the sources of Na+-Cl- contamination. Iodide enrichment (relative to Cl-) was greatest in precipitation, followed by uncontaminated soil water and ground water, and landfill leachate. The mass ratios of the halides among themselves, with total nitrogen (N), and with Na+ provided diagnostic methods for graphically distinguishing among sources of Na+ and Cl- in contaminated water. Cl/Br ratios relative to Cl- revealed a clear, although overlapping, separation of sample groups. Samples of landfill leachate and ground water known to be contaminated by leachate were enriched in I and Br; this provided an excellent fingerprint for identifying leachate contamination. In addition, total N, when plotted against Cl/Br ratios, successfully separated water contaminated by road salt from water contaminated by other sources.     

Mercury in coastal and estuarine sediments of the northeastern Irish sea

Mercury concentrations in surface intertidal sediments from estuarine and coastal environments of the Northeastern Irish Sea are reported. This region has two inputs of mercury contaminated effluents from chlor-alkali factories, and localized mercury contamination of sediments fairly similar to that reported for the Rhine has been found in the Wyre estuary. The present results for the Mersey estuary agree well with others reported in the lierature. Coastal sediments are much less contaminated than the estuarine deposits, and in all the environments studied strong correlations between mercury concentration, total organic carbon and < 63 μm grainsize fraction contents have been found.     

Distribution, magnitude and characterization of the toxicity of Ukrainian estuarine sediments

During the Soviet era, Ukraine was an important industrial and agricultural region of the Soviet Union. This industrial and agricultural activity resulted in contamination of Ukraine’s estuaries with legacy anthropogenic pollutants. Investigations on the toxicological effects of this estuarine contamination have been limited. For this research, we measured the toxicity of contaminated sediments from four Ukrainian estuaries to several aquatic organisms over 3 years. Sediment chemical analyses and whole sediment toxicity identification evaluations (TIEs) were also performed to determine the classes of contaminants contributing to toxicity. Toxic sediments were observed in several of the Ukrainian estuaries and chemical analyses of the sediments demonstrated anthropogenic contaminants were widely distributed. Contaminants were also detected in macrobenthic organisms collected from the sediments. Several lines of evidence, including TIEs, indicated hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOCs) were contributing substantially to observed toxicity. This information can guide environmental managers to prioritize portions of the estuaries requiring remediation.     

Contribution of primary producers to mercury trophic transfer in estuarine ecosystems: Possible effects of eutrophication

There is an ongoing eutrophication process in the Ria de Aveiro coastal lagoon (Portugal), with progressive replacement of rooted primary producers for macroalgae. Taking advantage of a well-defined environmental contamination gradient, we studied mercury accumulation and distribution in the aboveground and the belowground biomass of several salt marsh plants, including the seagrass species Zostera noltii and the dominant green macroalgal species Enteromorpha sp. The results of these experiments were then placed into the context of the estuarine mercury cycle and transport from the contaminated area.All salt marsh plants accumulated mercury in the root system, with Halimione portulacoides showing the highest levels, with up to 1.3 mg kg⁻¹ observed in the most contaminated area. Belowground/aboveground ratios were generally below 0.4, suggesting that salt marsh plants are efficient immobilizers and retainers of mercury agents. Moreover, due to their sediment accretion capacities, salt marsh plants seem to play an important role in the sequestration of mercury in estuarine sediments.Seagrasses, on the other hand, accumulated considerable amounts of mercury in the aboveground biomass with belowground/aboveground ratios reaching as high as 1.4. These results may be due to their different routes of uptake (roots and foliar uptake) which suggests that seagrass meadows can be an important agent in the export of mercury from contaminated areas, considering the high aboveground biomass replacement rates.Rooted macrophytes accumulate less mercury in their aboveground biomass than macroalgae. The change of primary producer dominance due to eutrophication can originate a 4- to 5-fold increase in primary producer associated mercury. This mercury would be available for export, making it bioavailable to estuarine food webs, which stresses the need to reverse the current eutrophic status of estuarine systems.     

Development of benthic macroinvertebrates sediment index(BSI) for bioassessment of freshwater sediment

Sediment quality has been evaluated in a variety of ways since the early 1990s in studies from Europe. In South Korea, most studies have used an indicator value for benthic macroinvertebrates based on water quality, not sediment quality. To date, few studies have examined the biological integrity of benthic macroinvertebrate communities in South Korea. In the current study, the tolerance valency and value in samples and the indicator weight values were measured for 43 benthic macroinvertebrate taxa from 73 sampling units in South Korea from 2014 to 2016. Total organic carbon, the amount of heavy metals, and total ammonia nitrogen were analyzed. The average grade for each pollutant was used as the sediment quality index. A benthic macroinvertebrates sediment index was developed for bioassessment of freshwater sediment. The benthic macroinvertebrates sediment index, which is based on the relative frequency of occurrence of macroinvertebrates, was highly correlated with pollution levels in the sediment. This index can be used in the field to assess the contamination of freshwater sediment. As the sample size was small in the current study and there were taxonomic limitations of Chironomidae larvae, further research is needed to improve the reliability of the benthic macroinvertebrates sediment index.     

A family-level macroinvertebrate biotic index for ecological assessment of lakes in Yunnan,China

Persistent economic growth in Chinese southwestern Yunnan Province is setting aquatic ecosystems in its plateau lakes under enormous pressure. While several different systems have previously been used to study these lakes, no existing methodology adequately measures both the chemical and biotic parameters of these water bodies. Here, we present a novel Biotic Monitoring Yunnan Lakes (BMYL) index that provides a general assessment tool for ecological deterioration that is caused by organic pollution. Principal Component Analysis is used to analyze the occurrence of families of macroinvertebrates and chemical properties of the lakes. In brief, families of macroinvertebrates were given a score from 10 to 1 based on sensitivity to organic enrichment and eutrophication. Sampling at each lake yielded an Average Score per Lake (ASPL) which is calculated by dividing the total BMYL by the total number of scoring families. High ASPL values characterize a biologically intact lake containing relatively large numbers of high scoring taxa, while lower ASPL values denote a polluted lake that does not support many high scoring taxa. The results of the BMYL show a notably more accurate characterization of the long-term health of concerned aquatic ecosystems than studies that use abundance levels of species or a simple analysis of chemical parameter.     

A Waste Treatment/Disposal Site Evaluation Process for Areas Underlain by Carbonate Aquifers

Fractured carbonate or karst aquifers are highly susceptible to contamination. In Minnesota, the areas underlain by karst aquifers are often characterized by thin soil cover, poorly cased wells and/or collapse features. When coupled with improper land use decisions these aquifers have become extensively contaminated.
Evaluation of existing or potentially contaminated sites has required development of unique site evaluation techniques or combinations of techniques. Shallow geophysics have been used successfully to determine subsurface karst features, pinpoint locations for additional investigations and evaluate pump-test data. Soil texture, density and relative moisture content have been closely examined and criteria established to evaluate subsurface erosion susceptibility. Percent rock core recovery, mechanical response of drilling and drilling fluid loss have been used to characterize the secondary porosity and potential contamination susceptibility of the carbonate rock. Dye tracing via surface sinks and well injection have determined primary flow paths and have been useful in estimating flow times.
These techniques used solely or in conjunction have been very useful in evaluating contamination existing in the aquifers and as a predictive tool to evaluate the proposed land uses impacts.     

Sr and Nd isotope geochemistry of coexisting alkaline magma series,Cantal, Massif Central,France

Sr and Nd isotope analyses are presented for Tertiary continental alkaline volcanics from Cantal, Massif Central, France. The volcanics belong to two main magma series, silica-saturated and silica-undersaturated (with rare nephelinites). Trace element and isotopic data indicate a common source for the basic parental magmas of both major series; the nephelinites in contrast must have been derived from a mantle source which is isotopically and chemically distinct from that which gave rise to the basalts and basanites.⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr initial ratios range from 0.7034 to 0.7056 in the main magma series (excluding rhyolites) and¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios vary between 0.512927 and 0.512669; both are correlated with increasing SiO₂ in the lavas. The data can be explained by a model of crustal contamination linked with fractional crystallisation. This indicates that crustal magma chambers are the sites of differentiation since only rarely do evolved magmas not show a crustal isotopic signature and conversely basic magmas have primitive isotopic ratios unless they contain obvious crustal-derived xenocrysts. Potential contaminants include lower crustal granulites or partial melts of upper crustal units. Equal amounts of contamination are required for both magma series, refuting hypotheses of selective contamination of the silica-saturated series.The isotopic characteristics of the apparently primary nephelinite lavas demonstrates widespread heterogeneity in the mantle beneath Cantal. Some rhyolites, previously thought to be extremely contaminated or to be crustally derived, are shown to have undergone post-emplacement hydrothermal alteration.     

不同土壤中含油污水污染区的电性变化研究及污染区探测

本文利用室内电阻率测试的方法研究了研究了饱和土和不饱和土两类土中含油污水的侵入量对其导电性的影响.测试结果表明,对于不饱和土,含油污水的侵入会改变土的饱和度从而引起其电阻率的降低,侵入量越大其电阻率越低;而饱和土的电阻率随含油污水侵入量的增大而增大直到趋于稳定.基于此,通过室内模拟土层污染和野外实地观测污染土层的方式研究了含油污水污染不同饱和度土层的电剖面异常特征,在不饱和土层中污染区域表现为相对低阻异常区而在饱和土层中表现为相对高阻异常区.通过对比不同时期的监测结果显示异常区的范围随污染区的变化而变化,并可反映出污染区的实际分布.文章分析了利用电阻率法进行含油污水污染地下介质调查的几个模糊点,对提高探测效果具有指导意义.     

Methods for biological assessment of salt-loaded running waters - fundamentals, current positions and perspectives

Salinisation of running waters is a severe problem in many parts of the world. Monitoring and management of such waters require ecological methods which consider the hydrochemical effects of salinisation on the aquatic communities in order to set targets to protect habitats and biodiversity. Several bioassays have been developed for this purpose and are surveyed here. They are based on the salt sensitivity of the following groups of organisms: diatoms, ciliates and macroinvertebrates. In this paper experiences gained so far are also considered as well as practical applications originating from this research.     

Long-term chemical effects of petroleum in south Louisiana wetlands—I. Organic carbon in sediments and waters

The chemical effects of chronic petroleum input into a shallow water marsh were examined by measuring hydrocarbon levels and dissolved organic carbon content of sediments associated with two active oil fields in south Louisiana. Annual levels of total organic carbon in the surface waters of the oil fields were higher by 1 mg C/l. in the salt marsh and 5 mg C/l. in the fresh marsh than the respective controlsites. Average dissolved organic carbon concentrations in the interstitial waters of cores taken within the oil field environments were 105% higher than the control in the salt marsh and 43% higher than the control in the fresh marsh. Significantly lower ratios of C₁₇ to pristane occurred in both oil field sediments; however, average odd-even predominance values were not indicative of petroleum contaminated sediments. The results indicate that microbial processes are responsible for dissolution of petroleum into dissolved organic carbon and that dissolved organic carbon concentrations may be a more significant measure of chronic petroleum input than hydrocarbon distribution.     

Effects of sonication and advanced chemical oxidants on the unicellular green alga Dunaliella tertiolecta and cysts, larvae and adults of the brine shrimp Artemia salina: a prospective treatment to eradicate invasive organisms from ballast water

Uptake and release of ship-borne ballast water is a major factor contributing to introductions of aquatic phytoplankton and invasive macroinvertebrates. Some invasive unicellular algae can cause harmful algal blooms and produce toxins that build up in food chains. Moreover, to date, few studies have compared the efficacy of ballast water treatments against different life history phases of aquatic macroinvertebrates. In the present study, the unicellular green alga Dunaliella tertiolecta, and three discrete life history phases of the brine shrimp Artemia salina, were independently used as model organisms to study the efficacy of sonication as well as the advanced oxidants, hydrogen peroxide and ozone, as potential ballast water treatments. Algal cells and brine shrimp cysts, nauplii, and adults were subjected to individual and combined treatments of sonication and advanced oxidants. Combined rather than individual treatments consistently yielded the highest levels of mortality in algal cells (100% over a 2 min exposure) and in brine shrimp (100% and 95% for larvae and adults, respectively, over a 2 min exposure). In contrast, mortality levels in brine shrimp cysts (66% over 2 min; increased to 92% over a 20 min exposure) were moderately high but consistently lower than that detected for larval or adult shrimp. Our results indicate that a combination of sonication and advanced chemical oxidants may be a promising method to eradicate aquatic unicellular algae and macroinvertebrates in ballast water.     

Bimodal tholeiitic and mildly alkalic basalts from Bhir area,central Deccan Volcanic Province,India: Geochemistry and petrogenesis

Bimodal tholeiitic and mildly alkalic basalts occur near Bhir, in the central part of Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP). Major and trace element concentrations show that, of the ten flows, nine are tholeiitic and one is an alkalic basalt. The Bhir basalts have a wide range of chemical composition. Geochemical variations in the stratigraphic section define three distinct phases of evolution (zones 1 to 3). Crystal fractionation of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine and Fe–Ti oxide expanded the compositional range. Low Mg#s (39–55), low concentrations of Ni and Cr and high Zr suggest the evolved nature of the Bhir basalts. Fractionation modeling suggests about 42% fractional crystallization.In spite of the dominant role of fractional crystallization in the evolution of Bhir basalts, some other processes must be sought to explain the chemical variations. Crustal contamination, magma mixing and degree of partial melting are suggested to explain the observed chemical variations. Resorption, reverse zoning and compositional bimodality in plagioclase phenocrysts indicate magma mixing. Samples of flows one and four suspected of being contaminated all have enriched SiO₂ and LILE (K, Rb, and Ba) contents and depletion in Ti and P, believed to be due to ‘granitic’ crustal contamination.As compared to tholeiitic basalts, the alkalic basalts are characterized by low SiO₂ and high TiO₂, Na₂O, K₂O and P₂O₅. Alkalic basalts are richer in LILE (Rb and Ba), HFSE (Nb, Zr, and Y) and REE than the tholeiitic basalts. The alkalic basalt occurrence is important from a petrogenetic point of view and also suggests that the sources of alkalic basalt magmas may be of variable ages under different parts of the DVP. Based on major, trace and rare earth element distributions it is suggested that asthenospheric mantle having affinities with the source of OIB was the source material of the magmas and the range in the composition of tholeiitic and alkalic basalts was probably controlled by different degrees of melting and/or inhomogeneities in the mantle source.     

Multimetric Macroinvertebrate Index Flanders (MMIF) for biological assessment of rivers and lakes in Flanders (Belgium)

The European Water Framework Directive requires that member states assess all their surface waters based on a number of biological elements, including macroinvertebrates. Since 1989, the Flemish Environment Agency has been using the Belgian Biotic Index for assessing river water quality based on macroinvertebrates. Throughout the years, the Belgian Biotic Index has proven to be a reliable and robust method providing a good indication of general degradation of river water and habitat quality. Since the Belgian Biotic Index does not meet all the requirements of the Water Framework Directive, a new index, the Multimetric Macroinvertebrate Index Flanders (MMIF) for evaluating rivers and lakes was developed and tested. This index was developed in order to provide a general assessment of ecological deterioration caused by any kind of stressor, such as water pollution and habitat quality degradation. The MMIF is based on macroinvertebrate samples that are taken using the same sampling and identification procedure as the Belgian Biotic Index. The index calculation is a type-specific multimetric system based on five equally weighted metrics, which are taxa richness, number of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera taxa, number of other sensitive taxa, the Shannon-Wiener diversity index and the mean tolerance score. The final index value is expressed as an Ecological Quality Ratio ranging from zero for very bad ecological quality to one for very good ecological quality. The MMIF correlates positively with dissolved oxygen and negatively with Kjeldahl nitrogen, total nitrogen, ammonium, nitrite, total phosphorous, orthophosphate and biochemical and chemical oxygen demand. This new index is now being used by the Flemish Environment Agency as a standard method to report about the status of macroinvertebrates in rivers and lakes in Flanders within the context of the European Water Framework Directive.