Feldspathic lunar meteorites and their implications for compositional remote sensing of the lunar surface and the composition of the lunar crust

We present new compositional data for six feldspathic lunar meteorites, two from cold deserts (Yamato 791197 and 82192) and four from hot deserts (Dhofar 025, Northwest Africa 482, and Dar al Gani 262 and 400). The concentrations of FeO (or Al₂O₃) and Th (or any other incompatible element) together provide first-order compositional information about lunar polymict samples (breccias and regoliths) and regions of the lunar surface observed from orbit. Concentrations of both elements on the lunar surface have been determined from data acquired by orbiting spacecraft, although the derived concentrations have large uncertainties and some systematic errors compared to sample data. Within the uncertainties and errors in the concentrations derived from orbital data, the distribution of FeO and Th concentrations among lunar meteorites, which represent ∼18 source regions on the lunar surface, is consistent with that of 18 random samples from the surface. Approximately 11 of the lunar meteorites are low-FeO and low-Th breccias, consistent with large regions of the lunar surface, particularly the northern farside highlands. Almost all regoliths from Apollo sites, on the other hand, have larger concentrations of both elements because they contain Fe-rich volcanic lithologies from the nearside maria and Th-rich lithologies from the high-Th anomaly in the northwestern nearside. The feldspathic lunar meteorites thus offer our best estimate of the composition of the surface of the feldspathic highlands, and we provide such an estimate based on the eight most well-characterized feldspathic lunar meteorites. The variable but high (on average) Mg/Fe ratio of the feldspathic lunar meteorites compared to ferroan anorthosites confirms a hypothesis that much of the plagioclase at the surface of the feldspathic highlands is associated with high-Mg/Fe feldspathic rocks such as magnesian granulitic breccia, not ferroan anorthosite. Geochemically, the high-Mg/Fe breccias appear to be unrelated to the mafic magnesian-suite rocks of the Apollo collection. Models for the formation of the upper lunar crust as a simple flotation cumulate composed mainly of ferroan anorthosite do not account for the complexity of the crust as inferred from the feldspathic lunar meteorites.     

Cosmic-ray exposure history at the Apollo 16 and other lunar sites: lunar surface dynamics

Concordant ⁸¹K-Kr exposure ages for four station 11 breccias indicate an age of 50.3 ± 0.8m.y. for North Ray Crater. Ray structures visible from orbital photography suggest that stations 8 and 9 should contain a substantial amount of South Ray ejecta. Concordant ⁸¹Kr-Kr exposure ages at these sites indicate an age for South Ray Crater of 2.04 ± 0.08m.y. Surface effects (tracks, surface angularities, and micro-crater populations) show good general agreement with this young an age, but discrepancies on a sample-by-sample basis seem to indicate that extensive pre-surface irradiations must have occurred. A detailed pre-surface exposure history is derived for the parent boulder of samples 69935 and 69955. It is suggested that secondary impacts play a major role in near-surface regolithic stirring. Widespread pre-surface irradiation would in fact be expected if most of the newly excavated material had been transported to the surface by secondary impacts rather than by the South Ray event itself.     

月表澄海—静海区遥感地质分析

月海盆地作为月球表面重要的地貌单元,分析其玄武岩喷发历史和构造作用,对于了解月球演化有着重要的意义。文中以澄海和静海两个相连通盆地为研究区,通过对LRO的DEM数据进行处理,获得两个月海的地形特征。基于Clementine多光谱数据处理,提取TiO2、FeO含量和成熟度分布图。经过对嫦娥一号CCD影像数据并结合LRO和LO全色波段影像的解译,提取了研究区126条月岭和114条月溪,并对比Cle-mentine提取的重力分布图,对其展布形式进行研究。综合分析结果表明,两个盆地虽然相邻连通,但岩性和构造分布有着明显的差别,玄武岩喷发不同期次界限明显,且澄海玄武岩年龄普遍晚于静海,相通处玄武岩与静海北部玄武岩同源。澄海中的线状构造展布形式与静海中的明显不同,呈现出一定规律,与质量瘤的有无及重力展布形式有关。     

Feldspathic lunar meteorites Pecora Escarpment 02007 and Dhofar 489: Contamination of the surface of the lunar highlands by post-basin impacts

PCA (Pecora Escarpment) 02007 and Dhofar 489 are both meteorites from the feldspathic highlands of the Moon. PCA 02007 is a feldspathic breccia consisting of lithified regolith from the lunar surface. It has concentrations of both incompatible and siderophile elements that are at the high end of the ranges for feldspathic lunar meteorites. Dhofar 489 is a feldspathic breccia composed mainly of impact-melted material from an unknown depth beneath the regolith. Concentrations of incompatible and siderophile elements are the lowest among brecciated lunar meteorites. Among 19 known feldspathic lunar meteorites, all of which presumably originate from random locations in the highlands, concentrations of incompatible elements like Sm and Th tend to increase with those of siderophile elements like Ir. Feldspathic meteorites with high concentrations of both suites of elements are usually regolith breccias. Iridium derives mainly from micrometeorites that accumulate in the regolith with duration of surface exposure. Micrometeorites have low concentrations of incompatible elements, however, so the correlation must reflect a three-component system. We postulate that the correlation between Sm and Ir occurs because the surface of the Feldspathic Highlands Terrane has become increasingly contaminated with time in Sm-rich material from the Procellarum KREEP Terrane that has been redistributed across the lunar surface by impacts of moderate-sized, post-basin impacts. The most Sm-rich regolith breccias among feldspathic lunar meteorites are about 3× enriched compared to the most Sm-poor breccias, but this level of enrichment requires only a few percent Sm-rich material typical of the Procellarum KREEP Terrane. The meteorite data suggest that nowhere in the feldspathic highlands are the concentrations of K, rare earths, and Th measured by the Lunar Prospector mission at the surface representative of the underlying “bedrock;” all surfaces covered by old regolith (as opposed to fresh ejecta) are at least slightly contaminated. Dhofar 489 is one of 15 paired lunar-meteorite stones from Oman (total mass of meteorite: 1037 g). On the basis of its unusually high Mg/Fe ratio, the meteorite is likely to have originated from northern feldspathic highlands.     

Conditions of condensate rim formation on the surface of lunar regolith particles

Condensate objects observed in the lunar regolith are distinctly separated on the basis of morpho-logical and chemical characteristics into droplets condensed during the expansion of an impact-generated vapor cloud and films condensed on the relatively cold surface of mineral particles. Using the analyses of both condensate forms and experimental data on the evaporation of melt corresponding to a typical lunar highland rock of the gabbro-anorthosite composition from Apollo 16 sample 68415.40, the temperature conditions of vapor condensation during lunar impact events were estimated. The comparison of condensate compositions with the analyses of vapors from the evaporation experiment showed that, compared with the compositions of droplet-type condensates, the condensate rims were formed from a vapor with high contents of refractory CaO and Al₂O₃ and at very different condensation temperatures. The enrichment of vapor in CaO and Al₂O₃ could be attained only at high temperatures of melt evaporation (higher than ∼ 1850°C according to experimental data). The estimated condensation temperatures of droplets are significantly lower, ∼1750–1500°C. Rim-type condensates were produced by vapor quenching on the relatively cold surface of a solid mineral particle, which resulted in almost complete precipitation of all major components of the silicate vapor without fractionation in accordance with their individual volatilities.     

基于多尺度数字地形定量分析的月球线性构造自动提取研究

月球表面构造对于理解和重建月球地质构造演化具有重要意义,月岭、月溪等线性构造的形态及分布特征与月球内动力构造运动密切相关。极为有限的样品和难度极高的野外勘察使得遥感成为行星科学研究的最主要手段。中国、美国、日本、印度等国先后发射的多颗新型探月卫星获取了大量高质量数据,尤其是高分辨率的数字地形数据(DTM,Digital Terrain Model)。高分辨率的DTM为月球表面构造特征的自动提取带来了新的机遇与挑战。文中利用多种分辨率的DTM数据,基于多尺度数字地形定量分析方法,识别和提取月球表面的线性构造。使用的地形数据包括500 m分辨率“嫦娥一号”激光高度计数据,100 m分辨率LRO-WAC广角相机数据,60 m分辨率的LRO-LOLA激光测距仪数据以及分辨率高达5 m的LRO-NAC窄视角相机数据。文中使用地形曲率来识别月溪月岭等线性构造,并利用不同滑动窗口大小和阈值进行线性构造的自动提取。对研究区试验结果的定量分析表明,文中提出的基于地形曲率的月表线性构造自动提取方法是有效且可行的,其结果可为月球表面线性构造解译提供重要参考,提高构造解译时效性和精度。     

Transportation of detrital materials on the lunar surface: evidence from Apollo 15

The thickness frequency distribution of stratigraphic layers intersected by the Apollo 15 deep core suggests that the majority of impact events reworking the lunar soil are small and produce ejecta blankets with an average thickness of less than 1·D5 cm. The energy frequency distribution of the meteorites producing the layers may be bimodal. The impacting meteorites produce both normal and reverse graded beds which appear to be the end products of two depositional mechanisms. First, the normally graded beds appear to be produced in base surges as escaping gases fluidize the flowing debris and larger particles move downwards in response to Stokes Law. Second, if the gas loss from the base surge is excessive the fluidization may cease and inertial grain flow dominates. In this situation the beds are reverse graded as larger particles move under dispersive pressure to the region of minimum shear stress at the upper boundary of the base surge. The same processes also produce measurable shape sorting of the particles in the beds.     

Volatile and siderophile trace elements in anorthositic rocks from Fiskenaesset. West Greenland: comparison with lunar and meteoritic analogues

Seventeen trace elements (Ag, Au, Bi, Br, Cd, Cs, Ge, Ir, Ni, Rb, Re, Sb, Se, Te, Tl, U, Zn) were analyzed by radiochemical neutron activation and 13 other elements (Ce, Co, Cr, Eu, Fe, Hf, La, Lu, Na, Sc, Sm, Tb, Yb) by instrumental neutron activation in a total of 12 rocks from the layered anorthositic complex at Fiskenaesset, West Greenland and in the plagioclase-rich unbrecciated eucrite, Serra de Magé.Garnet anorthosite 84428, which has an unusually sodic plagioclase, is spectacularly enriched in Cs, K, Rb. Tl and, to a lesser degree, Te. This appears to be the result of later metasomatism and not a reflection of fractionation trends within the anorthositic complex. For the remaining Fiskenaesset rocks, a factor analysis yields 5 principal factors for linear data for 22 elements and 6 factors for data transformed (log, ³√, √) to give approximately normal distributions. Linear correlations are controlled by high values, whereas the logarithmic transform increases the influence of the lowest values. Enrichment of several elements in chromitite 132022 underlies linear Factor 1. Six of these elements Co, Cr, Fe, Ir, Ni, Zn and possibly Re are probably hosted by chromite. In other zones of the intrusion, different fractionation trends may be more important, since in the transformed analysis these elements divide between Factor 1 (Co, Zn, Ni, Fe) and Factor 4 (Ir, Cr and also Au). Linear Factor 2 reflects the strong mutual correlation between Tl, Rb and An, the anorthite content of plagioclase. Transformed Factor 3 emphasizes the anticorrelation of Na and Sm with An. The positive correlations of Cs, U and Ge (linear Factor 3; transformed Factor 2) are largely due to their concentration in later crystallizates, but enrichment in lower zone gabbros of high An content perhaps indicates concentration in minor or accessory cumulate minerals. Flat chondrite-normalized rare earth element patterns in several anorthosites (except for a small positive Eu anomaly) suggests that the Fiskenaesset magma was relatively unfractionated.Factor 4 (linear) and Factor 5 (transformed) reflects the geochemical coherence of Se and Te. The sympathetic enrichment of Sb and Cd in 3 rocks, resulting in Factor 5 (linear) and Factor 6 (transformed) may be due to the lack of a suitable Zn sulfide host for Cd.In 3 rocks of true anorthosite composition, 8 volatile elements show rather constant abundance when normalized to Cl chondrites (mean 4.2 ± 0.4% Cl), possibly suggesting that volatile-rich material was accreted late in the Earth's formation, perhaps after core segregation. These anorthosites are higher than lunar anorthosite 15415 by a factor of 58 ± 9 in volatile elements. Siderophile and chalcophile elements are much more variable in Cl-normalized abundances in both lunar and terrestrial anorthosites, but surprisingly give somewhat similar Earth/Moon abundance ratios.Volatile elements in terrestrial oceanic basalts and lunar mare basalts are not as uniformly abundant as in anorthosites. but nevertheless yield a similar Earth/Moon ratio of 44 ± 8.Volatile elements in Serra de Magé are more abundant than in lunar anorthosites, but lower than in terrestrial equivalents, averaging (3.6 ± 0.8) × 10^?3C1.     

Determination of lunar surface ages from crater frequency—size distribution

Crater size-frequency distribution is one of the powerful techniques to estimate the ages of planetary surfaces, especially from remote sensing studies. This has been applied to images of the Moon obtained from Clementine mission in 1994. Simple techniques of measurement of the diameter of the craters (in pixels) are used and converted into linear dimensions. Among the several maria studied, the results of Mare Humorum and the central region of Mare Imbrium are reported. The results are compared with age estimates from other sources.     

月面环境与月壤特性研究的主要问题探讨

月面环境与月壤特性是月球探测和月球科学研究的重要基础,对它们的研究一直在不断加深,本文对月球表面地形地貌、热环境以及月壤特性三个方面的研究现状进行了总结,初步分析了这三个方面研究目前存在的一些主要问题：（1）地形地貌对月球定量遥感的影响以及南极艾特肯（SPA）盆地等地貌单元的年代学划分和成因演化;（2）月面热辐射、月表物理温度和热流等月面热环境特征的进一步探测和全面分析,以及其对地球反照率变化的响应;（3）月壤形成演化过程及空间风化作用,月球极区氢富集机制和水冰探测,以及月球资源开发利用。     

Chemical composition of lunar meteorites and the lunar crust

The paper presents the first analyses of major and trace elements in 19 lunar meteorites newly found in Oman. These and literature data were used to assay the composition of highland, mare, and transitional (highland-mare interface) regions of the lunar surface. The databank used in the research comprises data on 44 meteorites weighing 11 kg in total, which likely represent 26 individual falls. Our data demonstrate that the lunar highland crust should be richer in Ca and Al but poorer in mafic and incompatible elements than it was thought based on studying lunar samples and the first orbital data. The Ir concentration in the highland crust and the analysis of lunar crater population suggest that most lunar impactites were formed by a single major impact event, which predetermined the geochemical characteristics of these rocks. Lunar mare regions should be dominated by low-Ti basalts, which are, however, enriched in LREEs compared to those sampled by lunar missions. The typical material of mare-highland interface zones can contain KREEP and magnesian VLT basalts. The composition of the lunar highland crust deduced from the chemistry of lunar meteorites does not contradict the model of the lunar magma ocean, but the average composition of lunar mare meteorites is inconsistent with this concept and suggests assimilation of KREEP material by basaltic magmas. The newly obtained evaluations of the composition of the highland crust confirm that the Moon can be enriched in refractory elements and depleted in volatile and siderophile elements.     

月球表面矿物二向性反射特性实验研究

月表物质成分探测是月球探测的重要组成部分。研究矿物在光学波段的吸收特征,可以达到识别月表矿物的目的。作为月岩的风化产物,月壤的成分包括了主要的月球成岩矿物:斜长石、橄榄石、辉石等。本课题以斜长石和单斜辉石作为研究对象,旨在研究单矿物的二向性反射特性。影响月壤反射率的因素包括成分、表面物理特性等多种因素,研究中选用美国ASD公司Filedspec3光谱仪,测量单矿物不同颗粒粒度状态下350~2500nm的二向性反射特征。结果表明,观测几何角度变化对反射率的影响较大,有明显的二向性特征,在方位角180°及0°方位热点较明显。反射率随粒径降低而增加。实验结果可为月表矿物反演研究提供有力的证据。二向性反射方向的研究也为合理选择观测几何条件提高月表信息获取精度成为可能。     

岩浆洋分异与月壳

回顾了岩浆洋慨念最初的由来,具体阐述了月浆洋冷却结晶形成斜长岩月壳的过程。根据行星演化、核一幔分异及地球化学方面等方面提供的证据,论证了岩浆洋是行星早期演化必然经历的一个阶段。已有的岩浆洋结晶模型都认为岩浆洋中的岩浆在成分上是均一的。根据目前实验火成岩石学方面的进展,认为这个前提不存在,提出了月浆洋Sorer分异的一个新假说。此模型为今后研究岩浆洋分异提供了一个新思路,并指出了今后的研究方向。     

月球表面天然放射性元素Th的分布特征及月球化学的原始不均一性

月球KREEP岩石形成于壳幔的分界层中,天然放射性元素Th是指示KREEP岩分布的主要元素之一。在月球正面,Th元素含量高的区域主要分布在西部的月海区,包括雨海和风暴洋及其附近地区,而在月球背面Th含量高的地区为雨海对峙区以及南极爱特肯地区。高地的Th含量相对较低。现代月球表面Th的分布特征与3.85Ga年前的雨海事件有重要的关系,且在月球正面还发现了椭圆形的高Th含量区域,是月球上特殊的地球化学省,与月球初期的化学成分分布的不均一性有关。     

月表线性构造自动提取新方法研究:以澄海地区月岭为例

月岭作为月球表面上最常见的线性构造之一,可以反映月球区域性的构造特征和应力状态,对研究月球地质演化有着重要意义。前人对线性构造的解译方式通常是以人工目视解译为主,应用遥感影像数据和激光高度计数据等对月表线性构造进行解译和提取。随着数据精度的提高,以及对研究效率的要求,形成一种行之有效的线性构造自动提取方法具有必要性。文中以地形曲率为原理,借鉴前人应用地形曲率提取地表特征线的方法,以“嫦娥一号”CCD2C影像数据和LOLA激光高度计数据和LRO的宽视角影像数据为基础,以澄海为研究区域,进行线性构造的自动提取。研究区试验结果表明,文中提出的基于地形曲率的方法是可行的,并与人工解译的月岭结果进行对比,发现精确度更高,反映地形变化更为明显,为进一步研究构造演化提供基础,提高解译效率和精度。     

月球光照区尘埃静电迁移规律:初步理论结果

空间环境中,暴露在太阳风等离子体和紫外辐射中的尘埃颗粒由于光电发射等而带电。月球光照区带电的尘埃颗粒受静电场驱动或微陨石轰击发生迁移。本文计算结果表明,月球光照区粒径为0.01μm的尘埃颗粒静电迁移达到的最大高度约为1km,而在月球黑暗区亚微米级的尘埃颗粒静电迁移可以到达50km的高度。尽管微陨石轰击溅射的尘埃颗粒可到达~100km的高度,但是尘埃数密度与微陨石轰击事件直接相关,并随着高度变化。由于重力作用,溅射的尘埃快速沉降。溅射和沉降过程中,尘埃颗粒由于光电发射等继续充电。在局部电场强度和德拜鞘高度分别为5V/m和1m条件下,粒径<0.37μm的带电尘埃颗粒以"弹跳模式"运动,而粒径>0.37μm的带电尘埃颗粒返回月表,并再次轰击溅射尘埃。根据本文结果可以推断,月球尘埃实验(LDEX)在月球夜晚20~60km高度记录的尘埃事件可能与尘埃的静电迁移相关,但是月球白天记录的事件可能并不包括静电迁移的部分。     

月壤及模拟月壤微观结构的研究

为了对比研究月壤与模拟月壤的微观结构,介绍了月壤的形成作用过程和5种基本颗粒类型;通过真实月壤照片,对月壤微观结构进行了分析;利用火山灰为模拟月壤主体材料,对其成分进行了检测;对模拟月壤的火山灰颗粒进行了显微图像分析试验。结果表明,月壤存在胶结物微观颗粒,胶结物颗粒具有分支的组织形态和封闭的气泡,并且有金属铁珠存在;火山灰所含的主要成分及含量与月壤相似,经过粉碎的火山灰试样棱角较为明显,其纵横比峰值略小,稍显长条状,但与月壤比较相近,而复杂度因子则略有欠缺,说明颗粒还不够粗糙和多棱     

Volatile organic compounds in open ocean and coastal surface waters

Volatile organic compounds with volatilities ranging between those of n-hexane and n-pentadecane were identified in open ocean and coastal marine surface water samples taken in the north central part of the Gulf of Mexico. Approximately 40 organic compounds were found. The types and concentrations of the compounds found depended upon the extent of anthropogenic and terrestrial influences. Open ocean samples consisted mostly of aromatic hydrocarbons, whereas coastal samples included alkanes, cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Unpolluted open ocean and coastal water samples had individual concentrations rarely exceeding 5 ng/kg; some aromatic hydrocarbons approached 15 ng/kg. n-Pentadecane dominated the hydrocarbons in these samples (50–100 ng/kg). The most polluted coastal water samples had individual volatile organic concentrations as great as 150 ng/kg with total concentrations approaching 1000 ng/kg. The terpene, limonene, was found extensively in the coastal samples (up to 40 ng/kg). Photooxidization of hydrocarbons in industrial/urban atmospheres was considered as a possible source of aldehydes present in coastal water. The dynamic headspace stripping/Tenax-GC adsorption method coupled with packed column gas chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were used for volatile organic analysis.     

Fluorine in lunar samples: implications concerning lunar fluorapatite

The F contents of a number of Apollo 14 and 15 samples range from less than a ppm for anorthosite rock fragments to ~165 ppm for some soils and breccias. Apollo 15 soils tend to have lower F contents (50–70 ppm) than soils from other sites. In most cases samples were run simultaneously with W-1 in which F was determined to be 216 (±11) ppm.The $\text{F}\text{P}{}_2\text{O}{}_5$ ratio is 0·032 ± 0·005 in soils and rocks. A correlation exists in soils between F, P₂O₅, and that fraction of the Cl which is insoluble in hot water. The $\text{F}\text{Cl}{}_{\mathrm{r}}$ ratio in soils and rocks, though different, requires that the phosphate phase involved be fluorapatite; this is consistent with mineralogical observations. F, like Cl, is correlated with KREEP elements at all sites for which data are available.     

Aluminous enstatites of lunar meteorites and deep-seated lunar rocks

Fragments of aluminous enstatite from lunar meteorites of highland origin were investigated. It was found that such fragments usually occur in impact breccias of troctolitic composition. The aluminous enstatite contains up to 12 wt % Al₂O₃ and shows low CaO (<1 wt %) and almost constant high Mg/(Mg + Fe) ratio (89.5 ± 1.4 at %) identical to that of the Earth’s mantle. With respect to these parameters, the aluminous enstatites are distinctly different from common orthopyroxene of lunar rocks. The aluminous enstatite associates with spinel (pleonaste), olivine, anorthite (clinopyroxene was never found), and accessory minerals: rutile, Ti-Zr oxides, troilite, and Fe-Ni metal. The same assemblage was described in rare fragments of spinel cataclasites from the samples of the Apollo missions. Thermobarometry and the analysis of phase equilibria showed that the rocks hosting aluminous enstatite are of deep origin and occurred at depths from 25 km to 130–200 km at T from 800 to 1300°C, i.e., at least in the lower crust and, possibly, in the upper mantle of the Moon. These rocks could form individual plutons or dominate the composition of the lower crust. The most probable source of aluminous enstatite is troctolitic magnesian rocks and, especially, spinel troctolites with low Ca/Al and Ca/Si ratios. The decompression of such rocks must produce cordierite-bearing assemblages. The almost complete absence of such assemblages in the surficial rocks of lunar highlands implies that vertical tectonic movements were practically absent in the lunar crust. The transport of deep-seated materials to the lunar surface was probably related to impact events during the intense meteorite bombardments >3.9 Ga ago.