Effect of Shear Deformation on Microfabric of Clay Using XRD Technique

The present paper deals with the impact of shear deformation on the geometric arrangement of particles within the soil specimen, which is termed as the microfabric of soil. A series of compression and extension lubricated end triaxial tests are performed on cylindrical specimens of Kaolinite clay with two extreme microfabrics; dispersed and flocculated, which are obtained using slurry consolidation technique. Flocculated microfabric has random orientation of particles within the soil mass having face-to-edge particle contacts; however, dispersed microfabric has parallel orientation of particles containing face-to-face particle contacts. When the specimen is subjected to large stress levels during its shear deformation, the particle orientation and the geometric arrangement within the soil specimen gets affected due to the force acting on the clay platelets. The variation in microfabric of soil before and after shear deformation process is evaluated by obtaining X-ray diffraction patterns of the clay specimen at three different locations using standard X-ray diffractometer. The discussion includes an analysis of the orientation of soil particles located at shear banding zones of the clay specimens, which may be useful for understanding the strain localization development in clays.     

Effect of Intermediate Microfabric on Shear Strength and Strain Localization Response of Kaolin Clay Under Compression and Extension Loading

The present paper evaluates the role of microfabric in strain localization patterns observed in soil specimens during its shear deformation in compression and extension triaxial testing. A series of compression and extension lubricated end triaxial tests are performed on Kaolin clay with extreme as well as intermediate microfabrics, which are obtained using slurry consolidation technique by varying calagon content from 0 to 3 %. Intermediate microfabric is the geometric arrangement of particles within the soil mass, which lies in between the particle orientation during two extreme microfabrics; flocculated and dispersed. Flocculated has random orientation of particles with face-to-edge particle contacts and dispersed has parallel orientation of particles with face-to-face particle contacts. When the specimen is subjected to large stress levels in triaxial testing, the particle orientation and geometric arrangement get affected due to the force acting on the clay platelets. In this experimental research, the variation in clay’s stress–strain and pore pressure response and initiation, propagation and formation of shear bands at different levels of compression and extension shearing is evaluated using digital image analysis setup associated with triaxial system.     

Identification of Microfabric of Kaolinite Clay Mineral Using X-ray Diffraction Technique

A new method is introduced in this study to identify the microfabric (geometric arrangement of platelets) of cohesive soil using standard X-ray diffractometer. Various sampling techniques are used to prepare the Kaolinite clay samples with different microfabrics to assess the consistency and versatility of the proposed method. This method is based on identifying the presence of basal and prism peaks from the X-ray diffraction pattern and corresponding relative intensity values. The present study also demonstrates the conditions for which Scanning Electron Micrographs (SEM) are not capable of accurately identifying the microfabric of cohesive soils. The method proposed in this study uses relative amplitudes of basal and prism peaks avoiding difficult sample and surface preparation procedures, as used by previous researchers in their microfabric identification methods. The proposed method is found to be a rapid and accurate method for identifying the microfabric of Kaolinite clay and should prove to be valuable for routine implementation for studying structured natural clays.     

Particle orientation and its influence on the mechanical behaviour of isotropically consolidated reconstituted clay

The behaviour of naturally occurring geological materials such as clay and sand depends on many factors. For example, stresses, strains, previous stress history, mineralogy and the depositional environment all contribute in some degree to a characteristic that all natural soils share, namely “structure”. The structure of clay, or more generally, the microstructure of microscopically sized clay mineral particles, is just as important as the many other parameters that are used to quantify the performance of clays. This paper examines the microstructure that results from the particle arrangement brought about during reconstitution in the laboratory and considers its relevance to the resulting stress–strain behaviour.

Samples of reconstituted kaolin clay were produced using two different procedures. In the first series of tests, kaolin slurry was simply isotropically compressed in one increment. In the second series, the slurry was first isotropically compressed to a low pressure and then completely remoulded. This was followed by isotropic compression to the same pressure as the other series. Specimens were taken from the two series of samples, reconsolidated at various isotropic pressures, and sheared under undrained conditions.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images indicated that the monotonically compressed samples (Series 1) exhibited an anisotropic microstructure that was distinct from the remoulded (Series 2) samples. Significant differences were also found in the consolidation and stress–strain characteristics of the samples produced in the two series.     

Preparation and identification of clay samples with controlled fabric

Techniques have been developed to prepare reasonably homogeneous, reproducible bulk samples of a kaolinite clay (Hydrite 10) with predetermined microfabrics and to reliably identify these microfabrics both quantitatively and qualitatively. Eight samples with quite diverse histories were produced in the laboratory by controlling the chemistry of the clay-water system, the consolidation stress path (either isotropic or anisotropic), and the magnitude of the consolidation stresses. The fabrics of these samples are identified and quantified by the combined use of scanning electron microscopy, optical microscopy, and X-ray diffractometry, and reasonably comprehensive appraisals of particle associations and orientation are obtained. Anisotropic consolidation was found to induce a preferred particle orientation, whereas isotropic consolidation tended to provide basically random samples. The anisotropically consolidated samples from dispersed slurries exhibited somewhat greater particle orientation than those from flocculated slurries, and, although considerable particle orientation occurred at low values of the consolidation stress, increases in the major principal consolidation stress did accentuate the particle orientation. The presence of domains or small groups of particles is suggested in certain samples, especially in those consolidated isotropically.     

软土结构性对次固结系数的影响

天然沉积的软土普遍具有结构性,常规计算软土次固结变形的方法并没有反映结构性的影响。通过对漳州与青岛地区原状软土与重塑土进行次固结试验,研究软土结构性对次固结系数 的影响。结果表明,软土的 随压力 增大而增大,在 接近结构屈服压力 时达到最大值,此后逐渐减小,受 影响减弱,最后与重塑土的 趋于一致;重塑土的 受压力影响很小,可视为常数。根据次固结系数与压缩指数比值 确定 可能存在一定误差。由于结构性的影响,正常固结软土表现出“假超固结”现象,采用超固结角度对结构性软土 变化规律进行说明并不合适,而根据不同压力下软土结构破损的情况可以很好解释这一现象。     

天然沉积结构性土的次固结变形预测方法

结构性土存在着其特有的变形和强度特性,次固结特性也表现出明显区别于与重塑土。通过对连云港天然沉积原状土和重塑土进行一维压缩次固结试验,研究了典型结构性土的次固结特性。试验结果表明,土体由于受结构性影响,结构破坏前后其次固结特性发生明显变化;结构屈服前（固结压力小于固结屈服压力）不发生次固结变形或次固结变形甚微;当土体处于屈服状态时,土体次固结变形突然增大,次固结系数Cα出现峰值;结构屈服后（固结压力大于固结屈服压力）,Cα随固结压力的增大而减小,表现为与当前的应力水平和时间密切相关的特性,应力水平对Cα的影响会随着次固结时间的增长而削弱。基于以上机制,建立了考虑结构性影响的次固结变形计算模型,该模型中Cα不仅与压缩指数Cc有关,且也与时间有关,基于该模型计算得到的Cα值和次固结变形均与试验值吻合较好。     

Norwegian research into the properties of quick clay—a review

The ultra-sensitive type of clay called quick clay has caused severe landslides in Scandinavia and on the east and west coast of Canada. Slides of this type were the mentioned in literature in the fourteenth century. Quick-clay properties were described in 1901. Later geologists at the Norwegian Geological Survey, the Norwegian Highway Laboratory and the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute carried out research on this material. The present opinion is that the peculiar properties are based upon colloidal-chemical phenomena. According to this the clays deposited and consolidated in a flocculated state. Later chemical changes increased the double layer potential, either by leaching of electrolyte or by addition of suitable anions. The flocculated structure remains, unstable though, until mechanical disturbances cause a breakdown. Thus the clay is transformed into a dispersed state.     

土结构性对天然软黏土压缩特性的影响

天然软黏土普遍受到土结构性的影响,明确结构性对软黏土压缩特性的影响机制显得尤为重要。对两个天然软黏土原状样进行室内一维固结试验,得到的压缩曲线与已有文献中搜集的39个原状样压缩曲线进行比较。压缩曲线在对数坐标下均呈现倒S形,并存在明显的结构屈服压力。采用双对数坐标处理后,压缩曲线可由双直线较好地表示,易于确定固结屈服压力。41个原状样屈服后的压缩指数和屈服点含水率之间的定量关系,与基于重塑土定量公式计算的压缩指数与固结屈服压力下重塑土含水率的定量关系相一致。对比结果表明：天然软黏土屈服后的压缩特性取决于屈服时的含水率,而与土结构性无关,解释了天然土压缩曲线位于重塑土上方是由于对应屈服点含水率不同而引起的。     

结构性对上海软土次压缩特性的影响

针对上海地区淤泥质粘土的原状土样（具有凝聚型结构）和重塑土样（具有分散型结构）进行一维压缩试验,探讨结构性对上海淤泥质软土次压缩特性的影响。结果表明,具有分散型结构重塑土的压缩指数Cc、次压缩系数Ca以及Ca／Cc为定值,并不随固结压力的变化而产生明显变化;但原状土在达到结构屈服强度时,由凝聚型结构向分散型结构转化,并造成Ce、Ca。以及Ca／Ce值迅速增大直至峰值,再随着压力的增大而减小。另外,结构上的大幅调整造成了原状土e-1gt曲线的反S特征不明显。     

Undrained Triaxial Behavior of Cement Treated Marine Clay

Clays treated with lower cement contents often exhibit behaviour similar to stiff clays with planar failure surface under triaxial compression. In the present work the behaviour of a marine clay treated with 5 % cement, subjected to undrained triaxial compression tests is studied. The pre-consolidation pressure of the cemented clay due to the cementation bonding is observed to be very high. It is attempted to model the behaviour of cement treated clay using a bounding surface plasticity formulation as the plastic behaviour of the cemented clays within the yield surface has to be considered. The effect of cementation is included in the model as the pre-consolidation pressure obtained from consolidation tests. The tensile strength due to cementation bonds is included in the equation of the bounding surface. Simulations of the undrained triaxial compression tests on cemented clays are carried out and the results are validated with the experimental results.     

Consolidation of sensitive clays: a numerical investigation

Consolidation of sensitive clay layers, which have significant compressibility at different stress states, is investigated via a nonlinear one-dimensional consolidation approach with a piecewise linear e ~ log₁₀σ′ model. The behaviour of sensitive clays during consolidation and the limitations of conventional consolidation theory are addressed. It is shown that (1) the sensitive clay layer can be divided by the preconsolidation pressure into two zones, that is, high- and low-compressibility zones. The progressive destruction of particle cementation bonding through the soil layer is shown by the moving front of the interface between these two zones; (2) the excess pore pressure dissipation primarily takes place in the low-compressibility zone, which results in a small settlement during the early stages of consolidation; (3) conventional consolidation theory highly overestimates the settlement and gives a poor prediction of effective stress distribution.     

The liquefaction of clayey soils under cyclic loading

This paper seeks to investigate the liquefaction of clayey soils, a phenomenon that has been the trigger for many natural disasters in the last few decades, including landslides. Research was conducted on artificial clay-sand mixtures and natural clayey soils collected from the sliding surfaces of earthquake-induced landslides. The undrained response of normally consolidated clayey soils to cyclic loading was studied by means of a ring-shear apparatus. For the artificial clay-sand mixtures, it was found that the presence of a small amount of bentonite (≤ 7%) would cause rapid liquefaction, while a further increase in bentonite content (≥ 11%) produced the opposite effect of raising soil resistance to liquefaction by a significant degree. It was demonstrated that the bentonite-sand mixture was considerably more resistant to liquefaction than the kaolin-, and illite-mixtures, given the same clay content. The test results of plastic soils revealed the significant influence of plasticity on the liquefaction resistance of soil. The microfabric of clayey soil was investigated by means of a scanning electron microscope. The analysis showed that the liquefaction potential of soil was strongly related to certain particle arrangements. For example, soil vulnerable to liquefaction had an open microfabric in which clay aggregations generally gathered at the sand particle contact points, forming low-strength “clay bridges” that were destroyed easily during cyclic loading. On the other hand, the microfabric of soil that was resistant to liquefaction appeared to be more compact, with the clay producing a matrix that prevented sand grains from liquefying. In the case of the natural soils, the obtained results indicated that their cyclic behavior was similarly influenced by factors such as clay content, clay mineralogy and plasticity. The relation between the liquefaction potential of natural soil and its microfabric was thus also established. On the basis of the obtained results, the authors posited an explanation on the mechanism of liquefaction for clayey soil.     

Thermally induced volume change and excess pore water pressure of soft Bangkok clay

This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation carried out to study thermally induced volume changes under drained heating condition and thermally induced excess pore water pressures under undrained heating condition of soft Bangkok clay. The clay was heated up from room temperature (25 °C) to 90 °C using a modified oedometer and a triaxial test apparatus, respectively. The clay was found to exhibit temperature induced volume changes and temperature induced excess pore water pressures, in the range of temperatures investigated, depending mainly on the stress history. A theoretical microstructure mechanism that can interpret the thermally induced volume change behaviour at different stress conditions is presented in this study. Furthermore, the thermally induced excess pore water pressure behaviour at different stress conditions is explained using the unloading–reloading hysteresis of the typical soil consolidation curve. The results of this study provide additional data that can enhance the understanding of the thermo-mechanical behaviour concepts of saturated clays.     

Cut Slopes in Clayey Soils: Consolidation and Overall Stability by Finite Element Method

When a cut slope in a saturated clay is undertaken, a transient water flow occurs and stress transferences from the water to the soil skeleton take place in time (consolidation). Mainly in strongly overconsolidated clays, these stress transferences may determine swelling of soil and therefore reduction of its shear strength in time. However, the lowering of the water level associated to the cut increases effective mean stress, which may therefore counterbalance the above-mentioned effect. In the paper, the behaviour of a cut slope in an overconsolidated clay is analysed by a finite element program that incorporates the Biot consolidation theory (coupled analysis), with constitutive relations simulated by the p–q–θ critical state model. In addition, the variation in time of the overall stability is assessed with a computer program that uses the finite element results and formulations of the critical state soil mechanics. In order to achieve a more complex geotechnical interpretation of the problem, the analysis in time of the excess pore pressures, effective stresses, displacements and stress levels is also presented. Finally, comparisons of stability results are analysed by changing some parameters, namely the problem geometry (weight of excavated soil) and the over-consolidation ratio of the clay.     

高有机质软土固结特性与机制分析

有机质中的纤维素和腐殖质会影响软土的力学性质,有机质含量越高,软土的力学特性就会越差。为研究高有机质软土的固结特性,通过对不同深度高有机质软土的渗透性、固结以及微、细观结构特征进行试验,并利用分解程度试验结果,分析高有机质软土的特殊渗透、固结和结构特征的形成机制。研究结果表明,不同埋深的高有机质软土渗透系数差别较大,且渗透固结速度较快,基本处于粉砂到粉质黏土数量级;0.5～1.8 m埋深的土层垂直渗透系数小于水平渗透系数,其余深度垂直渗透系数均大于水平渗透系数;分解程度的研究表明,分解程度直接影响高有机质软土的压缩固结特性,低分解程度的土层更容易发生塑性变形。由埋藏从浅到深,结构由絮凝结构逐渐向叠片结构转化,最后转变为集块结构。结合土体的分解程度分析,得出高有机质软土的分解程度高低直接影响高有机质软土的渗透、固结以及结构特性。     

黏性土次固结行为的盐分和矿物效应研究

我国江苏北部连云港地区海相软土蒙脱石族矿物含量相对较高,且在海陆交互环境中沉积形成,沉积过程中具有孔隙水盐分较高的特点,但在后沉积过程中由于地表和地下淡水入侵,会使孔隙水盐分发生变化,而相应的次固结行为的变化规律尚不明晰,因此需要深入了解矿物成分、孔隙水盐分在软黏土次固结行为中的作用机制。由于天然软黏土的矿物成分、孔隙水成分差异较大,试验材料采用矿物成分均一的商用高岭土与膨润土组成的人工黏土作为研究对象,配制不同浓度的NaCl溶液作为孔隙水,模拟孔隙水盐分变化。通过常规固结试验,发现对于含蒙脱石矿物的人工黏土,压缩指数C_c随着盐分浓度的增加而减小,主固结完成时间随盐分的增加而提前,且同一应力水平下和孔隙比下,次固结系数随着盐分的增加而减小。在同样的上部荷载下,次固结系数与压缩指数的比值C_α/C_c不再保持为经验常数,而是随着孔隙水盐分的增加而偏离经验值,主要原因为盐分对水膜蠕变的影响。但是,对于主要由高岭石矿物构成的人工黏土,孔隙水盐分浓度则未对其次固结参数产生明显的影响。因此,如果场地的黏性土蒙脱石含量较高且孔隙水含盐量较高,则需要考虑孔隙水盐分的变迁对地基长期变形的影响。     

Two- and three-dimensional bearing-capacity solutions for footings on two-layered clays

In this paper, finite element analysis is used to predict the undrained bearing capacity of strip, square and circular footings resting on layered clays. The soil profile consists of two clay layers with different thicknesses and properties. The results are compared with previous solutions for strip footings on layered clays. The bearing-capacity behaviour is discussed and the bearing-capacity factors are given for various cases involving a range of layer thicknesses and properties of the two clay soil layers.     

Strain fields and mechanical response of a highly to medium fissured bentonite clay

This article presents the developments of an ongoing research aimed at modelling the influence of fissuring on the behaviour of clays. In particular, it recalls the main results of an extensive laboratory investigation on a fissured bentonite clay from the south of Italy and presents the data of a new investigation on the evolution with shearing of the strain fields developing within the clay, resulting from Digital Image Correlation (DIC). Element test results are analysed in the framework of continuum mechanics and linked to the clay fissuring features, once characterised using the Fissuring IDentity (F‐ID) chart. This article compares the bentonite behaviour with that of other fissured clays of different F‐IDs, highlighting the common behavioural features. Thereafter, the soil response at the macro level is related to the DIC‐derived strain fields evolving within the clay with loading. For this purpose, DIC was successfully used to investigate the deformation processes active in the fissured clay and the sources of the localisation phenomena. DIC is shown to provide indications of the extent to which highly to medium fissured clays element test results can be of use to model the clay behaviour according to continuum mechanics. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.