Formation of the accretion disk in the SS 433 system with explicit radiative cooling,convective heat conduction,and radiation pressure

The paper continues three-dimensional hydrodynamical computations of the formation of an accretion disk in the SS 433 system, taking into account radiative cooling explicitly, convective thermal conductivity, and radiation pressure. The computational results show that the powerful, broad flow forms an optically thick accretion disk with a gas density of 10¹²–10¹⁴ cm^?3, a temperature of 15000–35 000 K, a radius of about 0.3, and a height of 0.2–0.3 (in units of the component separation). Spiral shocks form in the disk, and a narrow conelike cavity (tunnel) forms at the center. In this tunnel, gas is accelerated to relativistic speeds, leaving the system in the form of narrow jets.     

Hydrodynamical modeling of mass transfer in the close binary system <Emphasis Type="Italic">β</Emphasis> Lyr

We present results of two-dimensional hydrodynamical simulations of mass transfer in the close binary system β Lyr for various radii of the accreting star and coefficients describing the interaction of the gaseous flow and the main component (primary). We take the stellar wind of the donor star into account and consider various assumptions about the radiative cooling of the gaseous flow. Our calculations show that the initial radius of the flow corresponding to our adopted mass-transfer rate through the inner Lagrange point (L₁) of (1–4) × 10^?5M_⊙/yr is large: 0.22–0.29 (in units of the orbital separation). In all the models, the secondary loses mass through both the inner and outer (L₁ and L₂) Lagrange points, which makes the mass transfer in the system nonconservative. Calculations for various values of the primary radius show a strong dependence on the coefficient fv that models the flow-primary interaction. When the radius of the primary is 0.5, there is a strong interaction between the gas flow from L1 and the flow reflected from the primary surface. For other values of the primary radius (0.1 and 0.2), the flow does not interact directly with the primary. The flow passes close to the primary and forms an accretion disk whose size is comparable to that of the Roche lobe and a dense circum-binary envelope surrounding both the disk and the binary components. The density in the disk varies from 10¹² to 10¹⁴ cm^?3, and is 10¹⁰–10¹² cm^?3 in the circum-binary envelope. The temperature in the accretion disk ranges from 30000 to 120000 K, while that in the circum-binary envelope is 4000–18000 K. When radiative cooling is taken into account explicitly, the calculations reveal the presence of a spiral shock in the accretion disk. The stellar wind blowing from the secondary strongly interacts with the accretion disk, circum-binary envelope, and flow from L₂. When radiative cooling is taken into account explicitly, this wind disrupts the accretion disk.     

Three-dimensional hydrodynamical modeling of the formation of the accretion disk in the SS 433 binary system

Three-dimensional hydrodynamical modeling of the formation of the accretion disk in the SS 433 binary system is carried out with various types of cooling and numerical grids. These computations show that a thick accretion disk with a height of 0.25–0.30 (in units of the component separation) is formed around the compact object, from a flow with a large radius (0.2–0.3 in the same units) that forms in the vicinity of the inner Lagrangian point. This disk has the form of a flattened torus. The number of orbits of a particle of gas in the disk is 100–150, testifying to a minimal influence of numerical viscosity in these computations. The computations also show that the stream flowing from L₁ is nearly conservative, and spirals in the disk are not formed due to the influence of the donor gravitation.     

Close binaries containing Supermassive Black Holes

We consider the evolution of binary systems formed by a Supermassive Black Hole (SMBH) residing in the center of a galaxy or a globular cluster and a star in its immediate vicinity. The star is assumed to fill its Roche lobe, and the SMBH accretes primarily the matter of this star. The evolution of such a system is mainly determined by the same processes as for an ordinary binary. The main differences are that the donor star is irradiated by hard radiation emitted during accretion onto the SMBH; in a detached system, nearly all the donor wind is captured by the black hole, which strongly affects the evolution of the semi-major axis; it is not possible for companions of the most massive SMBHs to fill their Roche lobes, since the corresponding orbital separations are smaller than the radius of the last stable orbit in the gravitational field of the SMBH. Moreover, there may not be efficient exchange between the orbital angular momentum and the angular momentum of the overflowing matter in such systems. Our computations assumed that, if the characteristic timescale for mass transfer is smaller than the thermal timescale of the star, no momentum exchange occurs. Absorption of incident external radiation in the stellar envelope was treated using the same formalism that was used when computing the radiative transfer in the stellar atmosphere. Numerical simulations show that Roche-lobe overflow is possible for a broad range of initial system parameters. The evolution of semi-detached systems containing a star and a SMBH nearly always ends with the dynamical disruption of the star. Stars with masses close to the solar mass are destroyed immediately after they fill their Roche lobes. During the accretion of matter of disrupted stars, the SMBH can achieve quasar luminosities. If the SMBH accretes ambient gas as well as gas stripped from stars, the star is subject to additional radiation in the detached phase of its evolution, strengthening its stellar wind. This leads to an increase of the semi-major axis and subsequent decrease of the probability of Roche-lobe overflow during the subsequent evolution of the system.     

Disk accretion onto a magnetized star

An exact solution is found for the interaction of a rotating magnetic field that is frozen into a star with a thin, highly conducting accretion disk. The disk pushes the magnetic-field lines towards the star, compressing the stellar dipole magnetic field. At the corotation radius, where the Keplerian and stellar rotational frequencies are equal, a current loop appears. Electric currents flow in the magnetosphere only along two particular magnetic surfaces, which connect the corotation region and the inner edge of the disk with the stellar surface. It is shown that a closed current surface encloses the magnetosphere. The disk rotation is stopped at some distance from the stellar surface, equal to 0.55 of the corotation radius. The accretion from the disk spins up the stellar rotation. The angular momentum transferred to the star is determined.     

Three-dimensional hydrodynamical modeling of accretion-disk formation in microquasars. Cen X-3

We have carried out three-dimensional hydrodynamical modeling of the formation of an accretion disk around a compact object due to radiative wind of a massive donor in a close binary system. The massive X-ray binary Cen X-3, which has a precessing accretion disk and may possess relativistic jets, is considered as an example. The computations show that, when the action of the central compact object on the formation of the wind is taken into account, the radiative wind forms an accretion disk with a radius of 0.16 (in units of the orbital separation), which accretes at a rate close to 1 × 10^?8 M _⊙/yr. In this model, the disk is spherically symmetrical and geometrically thick, with a tunnel going from the accretor to the upper layers of the disk along the accretor’s rotational axis at the disk center. The number density of the gas in the tunnel is five orders of magnitude lower than in the disk. The wind-disk interaction at the outer boundary of the disk produces a strong shock (wind-disk shock) directed toward the donor. The black-body emission of the disk and tunnel is nonstationary, and resembles the outbursts observed in Cen X-3. An analysis of the location of the region of nonstationary emission suggests that the outbursts occur in the wind-disk shock.     

Impact of the magnetic field on the structure of accretion disks in semi-detached binaries

We discuss characteristic features of the magnetic gas-dynamical structure of the flows in a semi-detached binary system obtained from three-dimensional simulations, assuming that the intrinsic magnetic field of the accreting star is dipolar. The turbulent diffusion of the magnetic field is taken into account. The SS Cyg system is considered as an example. Including the magnetic field can alter the basic parameters of the accretion disk, such as the accretion rate and the characteristic density. The magnetic field in the disk is primarily toroidal.     

Periodic Accretion in the T Tauri Binary UZ Tau E

Results of three-dimensional numerical simulations of the gas dynamics of the envelope of the young T Tauri binary star UZ Tau E are considered. The flow structure in the circumstellar envelope of the system is analyzed. It is shown that a regime with the impulsive accretion of matter from the circumstellar disk is realized in the binary system, in which there is a periodic transfer of matter to the accretion disk of the primary component through the accretion disk of the secondary.

     

Two-dimensional hydrodynamical modeling of mass transfer in semidetached binaries with asynchronously rotating components

We have modeled the mass transfer in the three semidetached binaries U Cep, RZ Sct, and V373 Cas taking into account radiative cooling both implicitly and explicitly. The systems have asynchronously rotating components and high mass-transfer rates of the order of 10^?6M_⊙/yr; they are undergoing various stages of their evolution. An accreting star rotates asynchronously if added angular momentum is redistributed over the entire star over a time that exceeds the synchronization time. Calculations have indicated that, in the model considered, mass transfer through the point L₁ is unable to desynchronize the donor star. The formation of an accretion disk and outer envelope depends on the component-mass ratio of the binary. If this ratio is of the order of unity, the flow makes a direct impact with the atmosphere of the accreting star, resulting in the formation of a small accretion disk and a relatively dense outer envelope. This is true of the disks in U Cep and V373 Cas. When the component-mass ratio substantially exceeds unity (the case in RZ Sct), the flow forms a large, dense accretion disk and less dense outer envelope. Taking into account radiative cooling both implicitly and explicitly, we show that a series of shocks forms in the envelopes of these systems.     

Circumstellar nebulae of WR and OB stars with strong winds: Simultaneous excitation by stellar radiation and shocks

We use a two-phase model for the structure of the circumstellar nebulae of hot stars to analyze the radiative cooling of a dense, compact cloud behind the shock produced by the compression of the cloud by hot gas from the stellar wind, taking into account ionization and heating by radiation from the central star. We can distinguish three stages of the evolution of the cloud during its compression. In the first stage, relevant for the entire cloud before compression and the gas ahead of the shock front, the state of the gas is determined purely by ionization by the stellar radiation. The next stage is characterized by the simultaneous action of two gas excitation mechanisms—photoionization by the stellar radiation and shock heating. In this stage, the gas intensively radiates thermal energy received at the shock front. After radiative cooling, in the final stage, ionization and heating of the gas are again determined mainly by the star. To compute the spectrum of the cloud radiation, we solved for the propagation of a plane-parallel, homogeneous flux through the shock front in the radiation field of the hot star. The computations show that a combination of two excitation mechanisms considerably enriches the theoretical spectrum. The relative intensities of emission lines of a single cloud may resemble either those for an HII region or of a supernova remnant.     

Infrared emission and the destruction of dust in HII regions

The generation of infrared (IR) radiation and the observed IR-intensity distribution at wavelengths of 8, 24, and 100 µm in the ionized hydrogen region around a young, massive star is investigated. The evolution of the HII region is treated using a self-consistent chemical-dynamical model in which three dust populations are included—large silicate grains, small graphite grains, and polycyclic, aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). A radiative transfer model taking into account stochastic heating of small grains and macromolecules is used to model the IR spectral energy distribution. The computational results are compared with Spitzer and Herschel observations of the RCW 120 nebula. The contributions of collisions with gas particles and the radiation field of the star to stochastic heating of small grains are investigated. It is shown that a model with a homogeneous PAH content cannot reproduce the ring-like IR-intensity distribution at 8 µm. A model in which PAHs are destroyed by ultraviolet radiation of the star, generating region HII, provides a means to explain this intensity distribution. This model is in agreement with observations for realistic characteristic destruction times for the PAHs.     

Estimation of a star’s radius from its effective temperature and surface gravity taking into account stellar evolution

A method for determining the radius of a star based on its effective temperature and surface gravity together with computations of the star’s structure and evolution is proposed. Rotating and nonrotating stellar models are considered, making it possible to take into account uncertainties associated with the lack of data on the rotational velocities of the stars considered. Each point of an evolutionary track is assigned a weight in accordance with the rate of the stellar evolution and the initial mass function. This enables a more correct estimation of the stellar radius. The method is used to calculate the radius corresponding to the effective temperature and surface gravity obtained from theoretical spectra derived from model stellar atmospheres. This makes it possible to calculate not only the color indices, but also the brightness of the star, enabling estimation of the distance to the star based on photometric observations. The method has been tested and its accuracy estimated using more than a hundred binaries and two dozen well-studied bright stars. The derived radius estimates for stars near the main sequence display systematic deviations that do not exceed 0.03%, and standard deviations for the relative errors below 3.87%. Data on well studied bright stars have enabled verification of the applicability of the method for the red giant branch, and hence proved the possibility of applying it in this densely populated area of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.     

The accretion activity of the Ae Herbig star CQ Tau

Results of spectral observations of the isolated Ae Herbig star CQ Tau obtained in 1995–1998 in the H_α line and near the sodium resonance doublet are presented, together with simultaneous photometric monitoring of the star. CQ Tau is a member of the family of young UX Ori stars with nonperiodic Algol-like brightness decreases. The star is surrounded by an accretion disk, in which its emission-line spectrum and part of its absorption-line spectrum are formed. The strong variability of the H_α, D NaI, and HeI 5876 Å lines testifies that the gaseous disk is appreciably inhomogeneous in both the radial and azimuthal directions. This inhomogeneity probably results from uneven feeding by the circumstellar material from the peripheral regions of the circumstellar disk. Over the four years of observations, we observed the star in deep minima three times (ΔV～2). On these nights, an increase in the H_α equivalent width followed the decrease in radiation flux. In the two deepest minima, the normally two-component line profile had only a single component with a nearly symmetrical profile. This behavior of the H_α line is in good agreement with the results of numerical modeling of Algol-like minima and can be used to estimate the parameters of the dust clouds eclipsing the star and inner accretion disk. These estimates suggest that the circumstellar dust clouds can approach very close to the star and be sublimated there.     

Formation of planets during the evolution of single and binary stars

Current views of the origin and evolution of single and binary stars suggest that the planets can form aroundmain-sequence single and binary stars, degenerate dwarfs, neutron stars, and stellarmass black holes according to several scenarios. Planets can arise during the formation of a star mainly due to excess angular momentum leading to the formation of an accretion-decretion disk of gas and dust around a single star or the components of a binary. It is the evolution of such disks that gives rise to planetary systems. A disk can arise around a star during its evolution due to the accretion of matter from dense interstellar clouds of gas and dust onto the star, the accretion of mass froma companion in a binary system, and the loss of matter during the contraction of a rapidly rotating star, in particular, if the star rotates as a rigid body and the rotation accelerates with its evolution along the main sequence. The fraction of stars with planetary systems is theoretically estimated as 30–40%, which is close to the current observational estimate of ∼34%.     

Interaction of the dark-matter cusp with the baryonic component in disk galaxies

The influence of the formation and evolution of a (disk) galaxy on the matter distribution in the dark-matter halo is considered. Calculations of the evolution of an isolated dark-matter halo were carried out with and without including a baryonic component. N-body simulations (for the dark-matter halo) and gas-dynamical numerical simulations (for the baryonic gas) were used for this analysis. Star formation, feedback, and heating and cooling of the interstellar medium were taken into account in the gas-dynamical calculations. The results of these numerical simulations with high spatial resolution indicate that 1) including the star formation resolves the so-called cusp problem (according to CDMcosmological models, the density distribution in the central regions of the dark-matter halo should have a distinct peak (cusp), which is not shown by observations); 2) the interaction of the dark matter with dynamical substructures of the stellar-gas galactic disk (spiralwaves, a bar) affects the shape of the dark-matter halo. In particular, the calculated dark-matter distribution in the plane of the disk is more symmetric when the baryonic component is taken into account.     

Observational Manifestations of the Precessional Wave in the Accretion Disk of a Cataclysmic Variable Star

Effects due to the interaction of the steam from the inner Lagrangian point with the accretion disk in a cataclysmic variable star are considered. The results of three-dimensional gas-dynamical numerical simulations confirm that the disk thickness in the vicinity of the interaction with the stream is minimum when the component-mass ratio is 0.6. As a consequence, some of the matter from the stream does not collide with the outer edge of the accretion disk, and continues its motion unperturbed toward the accretor. This part of the stream subsequent interacts (collides) with a thickening of the accretion disk due to the presence of a precessional wave in the disk, leading to the appearance of an additional zone of heating at the disk surface. This additional zone of enhanced luminosity (hot spot) is a direct observational manifestation of the precessional wave in the accretion disk.     

The binary systems IC 10 X-1 and NGC 300 X-1: Accretion of matter from an intense Wolf–Rayet stellar wind onto a black hole

The current evolutionary stage of the binary systems IC 10 X-1 and NGC 300 X-1, which contain a massive black hole and a Wolf–Rayet star with a strong stellar wind that does not fill its Roche lobe, is considered. The high X-ray luminosity and X-ray properties testify to the presence of accretion disks in these systems. The consistency of the conditions for the existence of such a disk and the possibility of reproducing the observed X-ray luminosity in the framework of the Bondi–Hoyle–Littleton theory for a spherically symmetric stellar wind is analyzed. A brief review of information about the mass-loss rates of Wolf–Rayet stars and the speeds of their stellar winds is given. The evolution of these systems at the current stage is computed. Estimates made using the derived parameters show that it is not possible to achieve consistency, since the conditions for the existence of an accretion disk require that the speed of the Wolf–Rayetwind be appreciably lower than is required to reproduce the observedX-ray luminosity. Several explanations of this situation are possible: (1) the real pattern of the motion of the stellar-wind material in the binary is substantially more complex than is assumed in the Bondi–Hoyle–Littleton theory, changing the conditions for the formation of an accretion disk and influencing the accretion rate onto the black hole; (2) some of the accreting material leaves the accretor due to X-ray heating; (3) the accretion efficiency in these systems is nearly an order of magnitude lower than in the case of accretion through a thin disk onto a non-rotating black hole; (4) the intensity of the Wolf–Rayet wind is one to two orders of magnitude lower than has been suggested by modern studies.     

Evolution of Stars Paired with Intermediate-Mass Black Holes

Under certain conditions, stars close to intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs) can form close binary systems with these objects, in which the Roche lobe can be filled by the star and intense accretion of the star’s matter onto the IMBH is possible. Recently, accreting IMBHs have been associated with hyperluminous X-ray sources (HLXs), whose X-ray luminosities can exceed 10⁴¹ erg/s. In this paper, the evolution of star—IMBH binary systems is investigated assuming that the IMBH mainly accretes the matter of its companion star, and that the presence of gas in the vicinity of the IMBH does not appreciably affect changes in the orbit of the star. The computations take into account all processes determining the evolution of ordinary binary systems, as well as the irradiation of a star by hard radiation during the accretion of its matter onto the IMBH. The absorption of external radiation in the stellar envelope was calculated applying the same formalism that is used to calculate the opacity of the stellar matter. The computations also assumed that, if the characteristic time for the mass transfer is less than the thermal time scale of the star, there is no exchange betwween the orbital angular momentum of the system and the angular momentum of the matter flowing onto the IMBH.

Numerical simulations have shown that, under these assumptions, three types of evolution are possible for such a binary system, depending on the mass of the IMBH and the star, as well as on the star’s initial distance from the IMBH. The first type ends with the destruction of the star. For low-mass main sequence (MS) stars, only this option is realized, even in the case of large initial distances from IMBH. For massive MS stars, the star is also destroyed if the mass of the IMBH is high and the initial distance of the star from the IMBH is sufficiently small.

The second type of evolution can occur for massive MS stars, which are initially located farther from the IMBH than in the first type of evolution. In this case, the massive star fills its Roche lobe during its evolutionary expansion, after which a stage of intense mass transfer begins. It is in this phase of the evolution that the star- IMBH system can manifest itself as a HLX, when its X-ray luminosity L_X exceeds 10⁴¹ erg/s for a fairly long time. Numerical simulations show that the initial mass of the donor star in systems with M_BH = (10³?10⁵)M_⊙ must be close to ～10 M_⊙ in this case. The characteristic duration of the HLX stage is 30 000–70 000 years. For smaller initial donor masses close to ～5M_⊙, L_X does not reach 10⁴¹ erg/s in the stage of intense mass transfer, but can exceed 10⁴⁰ erg/s. The duration of this stage of evolution is 300 000–800 000 years. A characteristic feature of this second type of evolution is an increase in the orbital period of the system over time. As a result, after a period of intense mass loss, the star “retreats” inside the Roche lobe. A remnant of the star in the form of a white dwarf is left behind, and can end up fairly far from the IMBH.

The third type of evolution can occur for massive MS stars that are initially even farther from the IMBH, as well as for massive stars that are already evolved at the initial time. In this case, conservative mass exchange in the presence of intense stellar wind leads to the star moving away from the IMBH, without filling its Roche lobe at all. For massive stars with sufficiently strong stellar winds (for example, stars with masses ～50M_⊙), the accretion rate of matter onto the IMBH in this case can reach values that are characteristic of HLXs. As in the case of the second type of evolution, the stellar remnant can remain at a fairly large distance from the IMBH.

     

The thermal evolution of Thorne-Zytkow objects

The evolution of stars with mass 5M _⊙ with an initially cool neutron core (Thorne-Zytkow objects) is computed numerically, taking into account the heating of the neutron star by flows of heat released during the accretion of a surrounding envelope. The temperature of the neutron core does not rise to values at which the system could become unstable to rapid increases in the neutrino luminosity. In other words, the heating of the neutron core does not lead to a rapid collapse of the initial configuration.     

Spectroscopy and doppler mapping of the binary SS Cyg during outburst

We carried out spectroscopy of the binary SSCyg in the Hα, Hβ, and Hγ lines in its active state in August and December 2006. We have estimated the parameters of the main flow elements contributing to the spectra. Profile variations during the orbital period are analyzed, and a Doppler tomogram computed for the Hα line. We consider the evolution of the line profiles with the development of the outburst. A phenomenological model explaining the observed outburst features is suggested. In this model, the main elements of the flow determining the shape of the spectral lines are the accretion disk, a toroidal shell formed in the inner parts of the disk, an expanding spherical shell around the accreting star, a region in front of the bow shock that forms due to the orbital motion of the disk in the circumbinary envelope, and the surface of the donor star near the inner Lagrange point, L1, which is heated by radiation from the accretor.