Cliff retreat and sea bed morphology under monochromatic wave forcing: Experimental study

Wave flume experiments have been performed to investigate a sandy cliff recession under monochromatic wave forcing. We varied the wave climate through the wave energy flux F and the surf similarity parameter ξ. The various processes of the cliff erosion cycle are depicted. The sea bed evolution mostly depends on the surf similarity parameter ξ. Steep planar (ξ > 0.7), gentle planar (0.5 < ξ < 0.7) and bared (ξ < 0.5) profiles are observed. We observed different bar dynamics, including steady and unsteady self-sustained oscillating states. Then we analyze the role of the eroded material on the cliff recession rate. We show that the cliff recession rate increases with the wave energy flux. Moreover, for a given wave energy flux, it is larger for a gentle planar profile than for a bared profile. However it is similar for both a bared profile and a steep planar profile. The cliff recession rate is not a monotonic function of the cliff height as the type of bottom profile influences the wave energy at the cliff.     

粤北岩溶峰林不同地貌部位植被特征研究

文章选择粤北英德九龙镇典型峰林平原为研究区,在不同地貌部位调查了生态环境的岩石裸露率和土壤厚度,以及植物物种、生物量、盖度等指标,运用物种α多样性指数和Jaccard相似性系数分析了植物多样性与相似性,结果表明:（1）不同地貌部位的岩石裸露率、土层厚度差异较大,峰壁岩石裸露率显著大于峰顶、坡麓和洼地,而洼地的土层厚度显著大于峰顶、峰壁和坡麓;（2）峰顶、峰壁、坡麓和峰间洼地的群丛依次为乔栯榕-竹叶椒+檵木-纤毛鸭嘴草、乔栯榕-红背山麻杆+檵木-五节芒、黄连木-灰白毛莓-纤毛鸭嘴草和长毛八角枫-藤金合欢+粉单竹-纤毛鸭嘴草,优势种与层片结构有一定差异;（3）岩溶植物具有对环境的高度适应性,使不同地貌部位植被能够保持较高的覆盖度,但地势平缓、土层相对较厚的峰顶与峰间洼地的生物量要显著大于坡麓及峰壁;（4）岩石裸露率与土层厚度、土层厚度与生物量间都呈极显著的负相关关系;（5）峰顶与峰间洼地的物种数显著少于峰壁与坡麓,峰顶的Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数和Pielou指数都显著低于其他部位,而峰壁的几项多样性指数均显著高于其他部位植被,岩溶环境地貌部位的多样性有助于提高生物多样性;（6） Jaccard相似性系数分析表明峰林空间异质性造成物种分布的差异,空间位置远近和地貌部位差异大小对物种分布影响至关重要。      

Characteristics of sea-cliff erosion induced by a strong winter storm in the eastern Mediterranean

Changes in sea-cliff morphologies along the 30-km-long Sharon Escarpment segment of Israel's weakly cemented Mediterranean eolianite cliff line were analyzed to gain quantitative insights into erosion characteristics associated with a high-energy winter storm (10–20 year return interval). Ground-based repeat LiDAR measurements at five sites along the cliff line captured perturbations of cliff stability by basal wave scouring during the storm, subsequent post-storm gravity-driven slope failures in the cliff face above, and return of the system to transient stability within several months. Post-storm erosion, which amounted to 70% of the total volume of cliff erosion documented, resulted in dramatic local effects of up to 8 m of cliff-top retreat. And yet, at the larger scale of the 30-km cliff line examined, erosion during the storm and the year that followed affected less than 4% of the cliff length and does not appear to be above the average cliff-length annual erosion implied by previously published decadal-scale retreat rates along this sea cliff. Our results do not support a direct association between strong storm events and elevated erosion and retreat at the cliff-line scale.     

Origin,geomorphology and geoheritage potential of Australia’s longest coastal cliff lines

Abstract

Two spectacular cliff lines occur along Australia’s south and west coasts: the Great Southern Scarp (new name) and the Zuytdorp Cliffs. Detailed measurements of their length show that they are exceptionally long and unusually continuous. The Great Southern Scarp is the southern edge of the Nullarbor Plain’s Bunda Plateau; it is cut into shallow marine sediments and extends for 820?km. Once a continuous sea-cliff, local uplift has isolated two sections from the ocean, so it now comprises the Bunda Cliffs (210?km of coastal cliff, 180?km of which is uninterrupted cliff line), Hampton Range (inland; 300?km), Baxter Cliffs (160?km of coastal cliff) and Wylie Scarp (inland; 160?km). The Zuytdorp Cliffs are coastal cliffs cut into eolianite, and extend for 210?km with an uninterrupted section of 120?km. The length of the Great Southern Scarp and the Zuytdorp Cliffs results from an unusual combination of circumstances. They are both composed of poorly jointed, relatively homogenous biogenic calcarenites, presented to high-energy ocean waves by regional uplift. The carbonates are sufficiently well cemented to maintain a steep vertical cliff face, but susceptible to disintegration under direct wave attack. Cliff retreat has been fairly uniform because of the broad spatial scale of both lithology and erosion. The arid climate, absence of nearby non-karstic catchments and karstic nature of the cliffs’ hinterlands has discouraged integrated drainage development, so no significant fluvial systems dissect the cliffs; this is a key factor in cliff edge preservation. In the case of the Great Southern Scarp, these processes have formed the longest continuous cliff line in Australia and probably the world. Referenced against criteria from Australia’s National Heritage List, the cliffs have potentially international/national levels of significance for the rarity of their scale, their demonstration of landscape evolution, and their spectacular beauty.

1. KEY POINTS

2. Australia’s longest coastal cliffs, the Bunda (SA) and Zuytdorp (WA) cliffs, are equal in length (210?km, within defined confidence levels).

3. The Bunda Cliffs are part of the Great Southern Scarp (new name), an 820 km-long feature of the Nullarbor Plain that also includes the coastal Baxter Cliffs (160?km in length) and two paleocoastal scarps.

4. The unusual continuity of the cliff lines results from a landscape history specific to the Australian continent, and the Great Southern Scarp is likely to be unusual on a global scale.

5. The Great Southern Scarp and the Zuytdorp Cliffs have potentially national and/or international levels significance for geoheritage values in the criteria of events and processes, rarity and aesthetics.

     

交河故城崖体拉裂-倾倒破坏模式

交河故城崖体差异风蚀和次生卸荷裂隙发育部位破坏严重,研究二者对崖体破坏的影响以及在其影响下的破坏模 式,对加固崖体和保护交河故城具有重要意义,运用有限元软件ANSYS对崖体在差异风蚀和次生卸荷裂隙作用下进行数值模拟。为验证有限元软件模拟结果的可靠性,采用底面摩擦试验对崖体破坏演变过程进行模拟。ANSYS模拟结果表明,被裂隙切割土体最大位移为487.326 mm,崖体卸荷裂隙根部塑性应变最大,崖体拉裂-倾倒破坏。底面摩擦试验结果表明,经过2.7 h崖体顶部的裂隙张开度约20 mm,土体已经倾倒破坏。土体拉裂-倾倒破坏模式为：被卸荷裂隙切割的粉质黏土层底部临空,在重力作用下拉张卸荷裂隙的根部被切割,土体将发生倾斜变形,可能拉断卸荷裂隙的根部而使土体倾倒失稳。针对差异风蚀和次生卸荷裂隙对崖体破坏的影响,提出崖体加固方案。     

Stability of an undercut sea-cliff along a Cilento coastal stretch (Campania,Southern Italy)

This paper deals with a finite element stability analysis performed on a sea-cliff affected by a deep notch. The cliff is about 200 m long with height ranging between 8 and 19 m. The notch at the cliff base is about 1 m above sea level, nearly stretching along the entire cliff toe. Detailed geo-structural and geo-mechanical surveys were performed in situ, and rock samples were tested in laboratory. The relevant physical and mechanical properties were used for determining rock mass strength parameters. A finite element approach was implemented using a two-dimensional elasto-plastic finite-element stress analysis program. The stability analysis shows that the notch causes increasing shear strains spreading from the notch end towards the top cliff. Decreasing strength reduction factors affect the cliff as the notch reaches increased depth into the rock mass, and when its depth is about 2 m the analysis results do not converge. At this stage, an uninterrupted shear plane develops along which a roughly prismatic rock block can slide and then topple.     

崖腔型悬崖的稳定性估算

崖腔型悬崖破坏,是一种崩塌地质灾害,对线路工程与居住环境的安全性必须进行评估。假设张应力呈线性三角形分布,提出了一种评估崖腔型悬崖体稳定性的估算方法：首先计算张力矩,应用张力矩与压力矩相等的力矩平衡原理,计算出张力面上的总张力,然后按张力线性分布原理求出最大张应力。崖腔型悬崖的破坏是顶部最大张应力拉裂岩石而发生的。所以稳定系数定义为抗拉强度与最大张应力之比,用以评价崖腔型悬崖的稳定性。用算例讨论了影响崖腔型悬崖张应力大小的因素：悬崖体厚度H、岩石容重γ与崖腔深度L,分析了它们对不同厚度岩体与不同崖腔深度条件下最大张应力变化与破坏的一般变化规律,以及节理裂隙发育程度对岩体抗拉强度的影响,并提出了相关建议。算例表明本方法与悬臂梁的弹性力学解方法结果相差很大,证明弹性力学解对“深梁”型悬崖是不适用的。     

莫高窟崖体可溶盐分布特征研究

通过对莫高窟崖面不同高度取样,运用经典溶液化学的研究方法,调查研究莫高窟崖体中所含硫酸钠(Na2SO4)和氯化钠(NaCl)以及中溶盐硫酸钙(CaSO4.2H2O)的分布。经过水化学分析,浸出液的水化学类型主要为SO4.Cl—Ca.Na型,离子为引起壁画疱疹、粉层起甲、颜料层粉化、颜料层片状脱落、壁画地仗酥碱的主要成分。同时,查明了莫高窟崖体物质组成,数据显示,崖面砾岩以大孔隙为主,渗透性变化范围广,有利于盐分溶液渗透。分析结果表明,莫高窟崖体上盐分随高度的分布规律受地表淋滤下渗和历史上风积沙掩埋期的毛细上升等综合因素影响,且后一种作用引起的盐分聚集有可能是底层洞窟壁画病害的主要原因。     

Failure mechanisms and triggering factors in calcareous cliffs of the Subalpine Ranges (French Alps)

In order to enhance the detection of prospective rock falls in calcareous cliffs, 25 rock falls have been described in a more detailed way than for an inventory. They are representative of middle size rock falls (10 to 100,000 m³) occurring in the French Subalpine Ranges, at an elevation between 200 m and 2000 m. Structural conditions of the rock masses, morphology of the initial cliff surface and the scar, possible failure mechanisms and processes have been studied. Typical failure configurations have been identified, based on the attitude of the failure surface, in relation to the bedding planes and the cliff surface. Irregular cliff morphology appears to be another important susceptibility factor. In most cases, the classical comparison of the average planes of the main joint sets with the average plane of the slope could not define the potentially unstable masses. Rather, those ones are due to joint planes that deviate from their mean set plane or to irregularities of the cliff surface. The proposed investigation method to detect prospective rock falls mainly consists in observing stereoscopic aerial photographs in order to look for critical configurations. Once a critical mass has been detected, its failure probability for a period of the order of one century must be evaluated (or its life expectancy). The main factor to consider for this purpose appears to be the proportion of rock bridges in the potential failure surface.

The triggering factors of rock falls in our study area have been investigated, by analysing an inventory of 46 rock falls. Statistical tests have been carried out to study the relation between rock falls and daily rainfall, freeze–thaw cycles or earthquakes. A good correlation has been obtained with freeze–thaw cycles, a slight correlation with rainfall and no correlation with earthquakes. This suggests that ice jacking could the main physical process leading to failure by causing microcrack propagation.     

The influence of rock structures on coast-line and cliff development around Tintagel,North Cornwall

The paper deals with the morphology of the stretch of coast between Boscastle and the Treligga Cliffs in North Cornwall. The prevalent cliff type is slope-over-wall, either hog's-back or bevelled as defined by Miss Arber (1949). Flat-topped cliffs are less common. It is considered that geological structures—bedding, jointing, faulting and, to a lesser extent, rock-type—have not only had considerable influence on the shape of the cliffs, but have also guided the marine attack on the coast. The evolution of most of the coast features, when seen in plan or profile, has been controlled by the local geological structure. The southern stretch of the coast is sub-parallel to seaward-dipping normal faults which have been stripped of their hanging-walls. Such a cliff line is dominantly a faultline scarp which has suffered slight retrogression.     

Error determination in the photogrammetric assessment of shoreline changes

The evaluation of error or uncertainty in shoreline change studies is an issue of prime importance for providing an adequate framework for calculated rates of change and to allow the establishment of threshold values above which the rates would be significant. In this note, a practical, easy-to-use method is presented to estimate error involved in the calculation of shoreline changes on aerial photographs, including the three most used types of shoreline indicators: high water line, dune/cliff toe and cliff top. This approach takes into account the specific characteristics of each shoreline proxy, such as relief in the case of the cliff top or tidal oscillations in the case of the high water line. At the same time it includes the error components that are independent from the proxy, basically related to the technical aspects of the process such as photo scanning and georeferencing. A practical example of application of the method is provided for several types of data inputs, based on shoreline changes around the Bay of Cádiz (SW Spain).     

Damage and conservation of the high cliff on the Northern area of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, China

The Mogao Grottoes have 750 caves, 45,000 m² of wall paintings, 2,415 painted sculptures, five wooden temple fronts from the Tang and Song dynasties, and thousands of columns with carved designs of lotus flowers and ornamental tiles. The Mogao Grottoes are one of the largest and best-preserved Buddhist art treasure houses in the world. The diverse range of wall paintings and sculptures and the profound and varied Buddhist art at the site prompted UNESCO to list the grottoes as a World Heritage Site for its cultural values. The Mogao Grottoes consist of two areas: the Southern Grottoes Area and the Northern Grottoes Area. Almost all the Buddhist art treasures are located in the southern area. The northern area is mainly where the monks and the creators of the arts of Dunhuang resided. In this paper, the causes of damage to the grottoes are analyzed by investigating the geohazards occurring on the side slopes on the high cliff in the northern zone. This paper will analyze the causes of deterioration through the investigation of deterioration in the upper section of the cliff face and goes on to discuss the main causes of deterioration of the cliff body: the development of fissures, wind erosion, rain erosion, and flood scouring. The following measures have been undertaken to deal with the above problems: bolt anchoring, grouting of fissures, use of bracing supports in some areas, and stabilization of caves and cliff face. Through the above measures, the upper section of the upper face in the northern zone has been effectively treated according to the principles of “restoration to historic condition and not altering the historic appearance.”     

三峡库区小溪隧道口危岩稳定性评价与防治

小溪隧道进口危岩位于重庆市涪陵区乌江西岸,岸坡陡峻。陡崖脚泥岩风化凹进形成崖腔,陡崖顶有阶梯状陡坎,在构造裂隙、软弱陡崖基座、卸荷裂隙带等因素的控制下,稳定性极差。作者采用地质分析和量化分析方法对危岩作了稳定性评价。危岩破坏形式有坠落、倾倒和滑塌3种。随着软弱基座差异性风化的进一步发展、崖腔进一步扩大、卸荷裂隙逐渐连续贯通,危岩体将失去稳定产生崩塌。采用支撑、锚固、拦石、排水、少量危石清除相结合的综合防治措施,是行之有效的。通过3个水文年的监测显示,本区工程在经历多个雨季后,每个监测点都是稳定的,危岩整治效果明显,防治措施起到了良好作用。     

降雨入渗条件下交河故城土质崖体渗流场计算及稳定性分析

交河故城土遗址是国家重点文物保护单位。其周边直立土质崖体的安全稳定性对整个土遗址的保护有着重要的意义。崖体的安全隐患主要在于其顶部存在众多的宽深裂缝,局部崖体顶部甚至出现了较大的临空块体。根据降雨非饱和入渗理论,建立饱和-非饱和降雨入渗模型,并发展了相应的数值模拟技术,详细分析了在一个较为完整降雨入渗过程中土质崖体内部渗流场的分布特征。在此基础上,根据非饱和土强度理论,考虑了降雨过程中土质崖体非饱和区的强度变化及饱和区渗透体积力的影响,选取了一典型剖面,应用强度折减法计算了崖体支护前后的稳定性,并对现有的加固支护措施作了评价。结果表明:所建立的饱和-非饱和降雨入渗模型较好地描述了降雨过程中崖体内部的渗流场分布;降雨过程中崖体的安全系数逐渐减小;在现有加固支护条件下,崖体的整体稳定性较好,但安全裕度略低,建议对崖体局部临空块体采取进一步的加固措施。     

A composite fall-slippage model for cliff recession in the sedimentary coastal cliffs

A composite fall-slippage model is proposed in this study for the Tertiary sedimentary coastal cliffs of Varkala in the western coastal tract of Peninsular India which are retreating landwards due to the combination of several factors. The fall model in the present study accounts both spring seepage and wave action, resulting in undercutting and this fall affects only the topmost laterite and the just below sandstone in the cliff. Slippage in this area affects all the litho-units and hence the geologic characteristics of all the litho-units are considered for developing the slippage model. This mathematically derived model can be used in other cliffs exhibiting the same morphology as well as the one controlled by the same influencing factors. This model differs from other models in incorporating multi-lithounits as well as multi-notches. Varkala cliffs form a part of the aspiring geopark in the Global Geopark Network and hence a study on the cliff recession is a pressing requirement.     

Distribution of coastal cliffs in Kerala,India: their mechanisms of failure and related human engineering response

The 560-km-long Kerala coast is characterised by long barriers with narrow beaches and steep cliffs. Distribution of cliffs from nine sections measuring a cumulative length of 63.5 km is evaluated in ArcGIS Software using topomaps and field survey data. The cliff sections in the southern coast comprise both permeable and impermeable rocks, whereas those along northern coast are comprised of either Precambrian crystalline and/or Tertiary formations. Notches, caves and even small arches are developed in Cannanore, Dharmadam and Kadalundi cliffs, where only primary laterites are exposed to wave attack. Stacks composed of laterite and Precambrian crystallines found in nearshore of cliffed coast indicate recession of shoreline. Mass wasting, mudslide and mudflow type of cliff failures are common in permeable to semi-permeable rocks, whereas rotational sliding, rockfall and toppling failure are found in hard rock cliffs. Retreat of cliff sections are induced by natural or anthropogenic activities or both. Rate of recession vary from a few centimetres to one metre/year depending upon the nature of lithology, structures and recession agents acting upon the cliffs. Various methods of cliff protection for e.g. hard structures—revetments, groins, seawalls, breakwater and jetties—and soft measures—artificial reefs/marsh creation, floating breakwaters, beach nourishment, beach scraping and vegetation planting—are suggested.     

Effects of the Santa Cruz harbor on coastal processes of northern Monterey Bay,California

An average of 230,000 cubic meters of sand is provided to the beaches of northern Monterey Bay each year by littoral transport from upcoast and from local river input. Two jetties constructed as part of a small craft harbor interrupted the littoral flow of sand and significantly altered the area's natural coastal processes. A wide protective beach immediately formed upcoast against a formerly retreating beach cliff. Sand now filling the harbor mouth each winter has led to expensive yearly dredging as well as seasonally or permanently depleted downcoast beaches. Seacliff retreat, always a problem in the area, is caused primarily by surf attack of weaker stratigraphic units and erosion along joint sets and faults, causing collapse of the bluffs. The seasonal loss of protective beaches has led to a two- to three-fold increase in the rate of downcoast cliff retreat following harbor construction except where protective rip-rap has been emplaced by property owners.     

Cretaceous foraminifera from the Turonian succession at Beer, southeastern Devon, England

During Winter 2000/2001 a major cliff fall occurred at the back of the bay in Beer, southeastern Devon. In the subsequent remedial works the cliff was cleared of loose material prior to stabilisation works. This process provided a suite of samples from previously inaccessible parts of the cliff succession. By adding these samples to earlier suites of samples collected over the last 30 years it has been possible to improve our knowledge of the foraminifera of Turonian age in southwestern England.The planktic foraminifera are, perhaps, the most significant component of the assemblages as many of the taxa recorded in Devon are of southern aspect and are relatively rare in others parts of the U.K. The planktic zonation recognised in this section is, therefore, almost identical with that recorded in Tethyan areas and a precise correlation can be generated. There are relatively large numbers of important taxa such as Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica, Dicarinella imbricata, Marginotruncana sigali, M. pseudolinneiana, M. coronata and M. schneegansi. The benthic foraminifera, by comparison, are relatively rare and are represented by a low diversity assemblage. This is typical of northwestern European chalk successions of Turonian age and is coincident with the highest sea levels of the Cretaceous. In the middle to late Turonian there is a dramatic shallowing event that is recorded world-wide at this level. The assemblage changes towards the top of the accessible succession at Beer record this significant, world-wide event.     

Assessing rockfall susceptibility in steep and overhanging slopes using three-dimensional analysis of failure mechanisms

Rockfalls strongly influence the evolution of steep rocky landscapes and represent a significant hazard in mountainous areas. Defining the most probable future rockfall source areas is of primary importance for both geomorphological investigations and hazard assessment. Thus, a need exists to understand which areas of a steep cliff are more likely to be affected by a rockfall. An important analytical gap exists between regional rockfall susceptibility studies and block-specific geomechanical calculations. Here we present methods for quantifying rockfall susceptibility at the cliff scale, which is suitable for sub-regional hazard assessment (hundreds to thousands of square meters). Our methods use three-dimensional point clouds acquired by terrestrial laser scanning to quantify the fracture patterns and compute failure mechanisms for planar, wedge, and toppling failures on vertical and overhanging rock walls. As a part of this work, we developed a rockfall susceptibility index for each type of failure mechanism according to the interaction between the discontinuities and the local cliff orientation. The susceptibility for slope parallel exfoliation-type failures, which are generally hard to identify, is partly captured by planar and toppling susceptibility indexes. We tested the methods for detecting the most susceptible rockfall source areas on two famously steep landscapes, Yosemite Valley (California, USA) and the Drus in the Mont-Blanc massif (France). Our rockfall susceptibility models show good correspondence with active rockfall sources. The methods offer new tools for investigating rockfall hazard and improving our understanding of rockfall processes.     

Estimating long-term cliff recession rates from shore platform widths

Coastal cliff erosion is a problem in many coastal areas. However, often only very limited data are available to quantify the rates of recession for the development of coastal management strategies. In the soft flysch deposits of the Waitemata Group, Auckland, New Zealand, coastal cliffs are associated with shore platforms. Two models exist for the profile evolution of shore platforms and associated cliffs: the first suggests that an equilibrium profile develops in response to erosive processes, and this profile subsequently migrates landward; the second model suggests that the seaward margin of the shore platform is relatively static, and the profile extends landward through a combination of cliff recession and platform lowering. Physical simulations and field measurements for mudstone and limestone lithologies indicate that the second model is more likely for soft flysch deposits. A eustatic sea-level curve for the Weiti Estuary, Auckland, suggests that up to 7120 ± 70 years have been available for shore platform development since sea level reached the present seaward margins of shore platforms. Shore platform widths were measured using GPS at two sites in Waitemata Group rocks: the North Shore of Auckland; and the southern side of the Tawharanui Peninsula, North Auckland. The long-term cliff recession rates estimated from shore platform widths (1.4 ± 0.1 to 14.3 ± 0.1 mm y^− 1) are consistent with the lower end of the average range of cliff top and face recession rates published for Waitemata Group rocks using different methods (11–75 mm y^− 1), and in agreement with cliff base recession estimates (3.5 mm y^− 1). Shore platform widths were qualitatively related to the rock mass characteristics of the associated cliffs, and therefore platform widths could provide a method of identifying regions of potential hazard.