Impact of mechanical anisotropy and power-law rheology on single layer folding

The infinitesimal and finite stages of folding in nonlinear viscous material with a layer-parallel anisotropy were investigated using numerical and analytical methods. Anisotropy was found to have a first-order effect on growth rate and wavelength selection, and these effects are already important for anisotropy values (normal viscosity/shear viscosity) < 10. The effect of anisotropy must therefore be considered when deducing viscosity contrasts from wavelength to thickness ratios of natural folds. Growth rates of single layer folds were found to increase and subsequently decrease during progressive deformation. This is due to interference between the single layer folds and chevron folds that form in the matrix as a result of instability caused by the anisotropic material behaviour. The wavelength of the chevron folds in the matrix is determined by the wavelength of the folded single layer, which can explain the high wavelength to thickness ratios that are sometimes found in multilayer sequences. Numerical models including anisotropic material properties allow the behaviour of multilayer sequences to be investigated without the need for resolution on the scale of individual layers. This is particularly important for large-scale models of layered lithosphere.     

Deformation partitioning during folding and transposition of quartz layers

Banded iron formation (BIF) from the Quadrilátero Ferrı́fero (southeastern Brazil) shows a compositional layering with alternating iron-rich and quartz-rich layers. This layering was intensively folded and transposed at a centimeter/millimeter scale through a component of bedding-parallel shear related to flexural slip at middle to high greenschist facies conditions (400–450 °C). The microstructure and c-axis fabrics of normal limbs, inverted limb and hinge zones of a selected isoclinal fold were analyzed combining optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and digital image analysis. In the normal limbs, recrystallized quartz grains show undulose extinction, relatively dry grain boundaries, c-axes at high angle to foliation and a pervasive grain shape fabric (GSF) indicating operation of crystal-plastic processes. In the inverted limb, quartz grains show more serrated and porous (“wet”) grain boundaries; the GSF is similar to that of the normal limb, but c-axes are oriented at 90° to those of the normal limb. We interpreted these characteristics as reflecting operation of solution-precipitation deformation in inverted limbs, as a consequence of grains having been rotated to an orientation that was hard to basal 〈a〉 glide, but easy to dissolution-precipitation creep. This deformation partitioning between crystal-plasticity and solution-transfer during folding/transposition of quartz may explain the common occurrence of layered quartz rocks, where individual layers show alternating c-axis fabrics with opposite asymmetries but a consistent GSF orientation. Such characteristics may reflect an earlier event of pervasive folding/transposition of a preexisting layering.     

Discrete element modelling of the influence of cover strength on basement-involved fault-propagation folding

A discrete element model is used to investigate the influence of sedimentary cover strength on the development of basement-involved fault-propagation folds. We find that uniformly weak cover best promotes the development of classical, trishear-like fault-related folds showing marked anticlinal thinning and synclinal thickening, with cover dips increasing downwards towards the fault tip. Uniformly strong cover results in more rounded fold forms with only minor hinge thickening/thinning and significant basement fault-propagation into the sedimentary cover. Heterogeneous, layered, cover sequences with marked differences in strength promote the development of more complex and variable fold forms, with a close juxtaposition of brittle and macroscopically ductile features, which diverge from the predictions of simple kinematic models. In these structures the upper layers are often poor indicators of deeper structure. In addition, we find that in layered cover sequences fault-propagation into the cover is a complex process and is strongly buffered by the weaker cover units.     

Separation of rifting and lithospheric folding signatures in the NW-Alpine foreland

The development of the Alpine mountain belt has been governed by the convergence of the African and European plates since the Late Cretaceous. During the Cenozoic, this orogeny was accompanied with two major kinds of intraplate deformation in the NW-European foreland: (1) the European Cenozoic Rift System (ECRIS), a left-lateral transtensional wrench zone striking NNE-SSW between the western Mediterranean Sea and the Bohemian Massif; (2) long-wavelength lithospheric folds striking NE and located between the Alpine front and the North Sea. The present-day geometry of the European crust comprises the signatures of these two events superimposed on all preceding ones. In order to better define the processes and causes of each event, we identify and separate their respective geometrical signatures on depth maps of the pre-Mesozoic basement and of the Moho. We derive the respective timing of rifting and folding from sedimentary accumulation curves computed for selected locations of the Upper Rhine Graben. From this geometrical and chronological separation, we infer that the ECRIS developed mostly from 37 to 17 Ma, in response to north-directed impingement of Adria into the European plate. Lithospheric folds developed between 17 and 0 Ma, after the azimuth of relative displacement between Adria and Europe turned counter-clockwise to NW–SE. The geometry of these folds (wavelength = 270 km; amplitude = 1,500 m) is consistent with the geometry, as predicted by analogue and numerical models, of buckle folds produced by horizontal shortening of the whole lithosphere. The development of the folds resulted in ca. 1,000 m of rock uplift along the hinge lines of the anticlines (Burgundy–Swabian Jura and Normandy–Vogelsberg) and ca. 500 m of rock subsidence along the hinge line of the intervening syncline (Sologne–Franconian Basin). The grabens of the ECRIS were tilted by the development of the folds, and their rift-related sedimentary infill was reduced on anticlines, while sedimentary accumulation was enhanced in synclines. We interpret the occurrence of Miocene volcanic activity and of topographic highs, and the basement and Moho configurations in the Vosges–Black Forest area and in the Rhenish Massif as interference patterns between linear lithospheric anticlines and linear grabens, rather than as signatures of asthenospheric plumes.

3D numerical modeling of forward folding and reverse unfolding of a viscous single-layer: Implications for the formation of folds and fold patterns

The main aims of this study are to show (i) that non-cylindrical three-dimensional (3D) fold shapes and patterns can form during a single, unidirectional shortening event and (ii) that numerical reverse modeling of 3D folding is a feasible method to reconstruct the formation of 3D buckle-folds. 3D viscous (Newtonian) single-layer folding is numerically simulated with the finite element method to investigate the formation of fold shapes during one shortening event. An initially flat layer rests on a matrix with smaller viscosity and is shortened in one direction parallel to the layering. Forward modeling with different initial geometrical perturbations on the flat layer and different lateral boundary conditions generates non-cylindrical 3D fold shapes and patterns. The simulations show that, in reality, the initial layer geometry and the boundary conditions strongly control the final fold geometry. Fold geometries produced from the forward folding models are used as initial setting in numerical reverse folding models with parameters identical to those of forward models. These reverse models accurately reconstruct the initial geometry of forward models with also only one extension event parallel to the previous shortening direction. The starting geometry of the forward models is inaccurately reconstructed by the reverse models if a significantly different viscosity ratio than in the forward models is used. This work demonstrates that reverse modeling has a high potential for reconstructing the deformation history of folded regions and rheological constraints such as viscosity ratio. Reverse models may be applied to natural 3D fold shapes and patterns in order to determine if they formed (i) during a single or multiple deformation events and (ii) as active buckle-folds with a viscosity ratio 1 or as passive, kinematic folds without buckling. This approach may find much application to fold interference patterns, in particular.     

Lithospheric scale folding: numerical modelling and application to the Himalayan syntaxes

 We describe the eastern and western Himalayan syntaxes, which are large-scale antiforms situated at geodynamically similar locations and the metamorphic evolution of which is coeval in the India–Asia collisional history. To understand the mechanical plausibility of the structural interpretation, we present two-dimensional finite-element modelling of lithospheric folding. The models reveal the coeval development of adjacent synformal basins, analogous to the Peshawar and Kashmir basins on both sides of the western syntaxis. Similarities between geological data and calculated models indicate that lithospheric buckling is a basic response to large-scale continental shortening and an efficient mountain building process. Received: 26 November 1998 / Accepted: 27 November 1998     

The genesis of Lofer cycles of the Dachstein Limestone,Northern Calcareous Alps,Austria

Peritidal carbonate platform Lofer cycles have been regarded as a record of sea-level oscillations driven by variations in the earth's orbit. Fresh analysis of a newly measured 700 m thick section from the Steinernes Meer is presented here. Estimation of stratigraphic completeness indicates that this sequence is only 0.75–9.5% complete, strongly suggesting that Milankovitch patterns are not preserved. Analysis of cycle thickness-frequency distributions reveals an exponential pattern, strongly suggestive of aperiodic, random deposition rather than periodic deposition in response to orbital forcing. Evidence for the importance of autocyclic processes (e.g. lateral migration of inter- to supratidal mudbanks and subtidal areas) and syn-sedimentary tectonic downfaulting events within this already active Late Triassic extensional zone is presented.     

北京市地面沉降区含水岩组及压缩层划分

文章通过北京地面沉降区综合基础地质及地面沉降专项调查，查明了沉降区水文地质、工程地质条件及地面沉降分布现状，并在典型地面沉降区开展了钻探和各种水文地质及土工试验工作。根捃上述成果资料，首次对北京市地面沉降区的含水岩组及压缩层组进行了划分。为首都地面沉降网站建设及地面沉降预警预报系统建立奠定了基础。     

Mechanisms of variability and predictability of the tropical coupled ocean-atmosphere system

A conceptual model is proposed to explain the observed aperiodicity in the short term climate fluctuations of the tropical coupled ocean-atmosphere system. This is based on the evidence presented here that the tropical coupled ocean-atmosphere system sustains a low frequency inter-annual mode and a host of higher frequency intra-seasonal unstable modes. At long wavelengths, the low frequency mode is dominant while at short wavelengths, the high frequency modes are dominant resulting in the co-existence of a long wave low frequency mode with some short wave intra-seasonal modes in the tropical coupled system. It is argued that due to its long wavelength, the low frequency mode would behave like a linear oscillator while the higher frequency short wave modes would be nonlinear. The conceptual model envisages that an interaction between the low frequency linear oscillator and the high frequency nonlinear oscillations results in the observed aperiodicity of the tropical coupled system. This is illustrated by representing the higher frequency intra-seasonal oscillations by a nonlinear low order model which is then coupled to a linear oscillator with a periodicity of four years. The physical mechanism resulting in the aperiodicity in the low frequency oscillations and implications of these results on the predictability of the coupled system are discussed.     

双层黏弹性地基一维固结分析

软土具有黏滞性,对其固结和变形会产生一定程度的影响。采用现有基于广义Voigt流变模型的单层黏弹性地基一维固结问题求解方法,获得各土层的孔压通解表达式。根据两层土体接触面处孔压和流量连续条件及边界条件,给出了系统的正交关系,进而确定通解中待定系数。广义Voigt模型反映了土体应力应变关系在不同时期的特征,因此该解有广泛的适用性。采用岩土工程中应用较广的Merchant流变模型对一工程算例进行了分析。分析结果表明,土体的黏滞性降低了土体的固结速度,且深度越深,影响幅度越大。     

Vertical dynamic response of an inhomogeneous viscoelastic pile

The vertical dynamic response of an inhomogeneous viscoelastic pile embedded in layered soil subjected to axial loading has been investigated. The interaction between pile and soil is simulated by a general Voigt model, one that has been demonstrated by earlier investigators to be capable of representing the plane strain case of soil adequately. The analytical solutions of pile responses in the frequency domain are obtained by using the (two-sided) Laplace transform. The corresponding semi-analytical solutions in the time domain for the case of a pile subjected to an instantaneous half-sine exciting force applied at the pile top are obtained via Fourier transform inversion. Using these solutions, a parametric study of the influence of the pile and soil properties on the vertical dynamic responses has been undertaken. It is shown that an abrupt variation of the soil properties with depth cannot yield evident reflection signal that may lead geotechnical engineers to assess the pile integrity wrongly from the velocity curve of the pile top, and the influence of viscosity of the pile material on the response is different from that of the damping of the soil surrounding the pile. The theoretical model developed in the present paper has also been validated in field studies, where it is shown by means of three examples that the solution developed in this study has been adequately verified by comparison of the theoretical pile model and field measurements of the dynamic responses.     

粘弹性桩打桩过程中的应力波分析

主要讨论了粘弹性桩打进过程中的应力波传播问题。探讨了刚性重锤与桩撞击产生的冲击荷载及粘弹性桩在刚性锤撞击下的振动方程,给出了桩纵向振动的解析解,并分析了桩的粘滞系数及桩端土刚度对桩端质点振动速度响应的影响特点。     

三角剪切断层传播褶皱作用理论与应用

基底断层在沉积盖层中传播所形成的褶皱形态难以用平行膝折褶皱理论进行解释,这在于两者的流变学性质有很大差异。Erslev提出了三角剪切断层传播褶皱理论,认为下伏断层的脆性强破裂变形为向上变宽的三角形分布式剪切所调节,三角形顶点固定于断层端点。Hardy和Ford拓展了这一理论并成功地建立数字模拟模型,Allmendinger进一步建立与完善了三角剪切的正演模型与反演方法。通过运动学模型预测结果与天然构造观察和相似模拟实验结果的对比分析,以及通过一系列力学模型对运动学模型的检验,三角剪切断层传播褶皱理论被证实并获得了广泛应用。对前陆盆地、克拉通盆地和走滑盆地的基底卷入型构造与走滑或斜向滑动构造,都可以应用三角剪切断层传播褶皱理论来分析变形样式及其分布特征。该理论可以有效地预测隐伏断层的初始破裂点、断层传播量与发育部位,已成功地应用于工程地质与地震灾害预报等方面。     

三维黏弹性介质人工边界研究

为了得到适于分析非线性结构-地基相互作用问题的人工边界,结合弹性波理论与黏弹性理论,推导出了适于模拟三维黏弹性远场介质辐射阻尼的人工边界,并对其模拟远场地基辐射阻尼的性能及相应地震波动输入方法进行了研究。结果表明：在结构-地基动力相互作用问题中,得到的黏弹性人工边界模拟计算域外远场黏弹性介质的辐射阻尼具有理想精度;不论是简谐波还是非简谐波,地震波动输入都取得了理想结果;在黏弹性介质条件下自由地表处的总场位移幅值n是输入波幅值的 倍。     

Pseudo 3-D modeling of trishear fault-propagation folding

Basement structures, to which trishear fault-propagation models have most successfully been applied, are commonly three-dimensional folds formed at the tip-line of a fault. We present here a ‘pseudo-3D’ trishear model in which various parameters are permitted to vary along strike and oblique-slip can be modeled. These variations may be combined in an infinite number of ways, facilitating the simulation of many real structures. A thrust changing from blind to emergent can be produced by a change in the slip or propagation-to-slip (P/S) along strike. Folds with forelimbs changing from overturned to upright along strike can be modeled either by changing the slip, P/S or trishear angle. Also some minor folds perpendicular or oblique to the main structure can result from changes in the trishear angle or fault angle along the strike. Models including growth strata show that it is practically impossible to distinguish between growth and pre-growth strata using the map patterns. As a field test, we have modeled the oblique slip East Kaibab monocline, demonstrating a good fit between the field observations and model predictions.     

Side-stepping of axial surface traces in superposed folding

During the refolding of an early non-isoclinal fold (say,F ₁) we may find an offset or side-stepping of the axial surfaces of the later folds (say,F ₂). The offsets can be seen in both type 2 and type 3 interference patterns. An analysis of the shear fold model shows that there is a maximum limit for the magnitude of side-stepping. The side-stepping is larger for larger interlimb angles ofF ₁. It decreases with progressive tightening ofF ₂. By recognizing such side-stepping we can predict on which side the F₁ hinge should lie even if the hinge is unexposed or lies outside the domain of observation. The general rule for the sense of side-stepping is the same for shear folds, flexural slip folds and buckling folds. However, the side-stepping in buckling folds should be used with caution, sinceF ₂ folds on buckled single-layers may show an offset whose sense is opposite to that predicted by the general rule.     

三角剪切断层传播褶皱作用理论与应用

基底断层在沉积盖层中传播所形成的褶皱形态难以用平行膝折褶皱理论进行解释,这在于两者的流变学性质有很大差异。Erslev提出了三角剪切断层传播褶皱理论,认为下伏断层的脆性强破裂变形为向上变宽的三角形分布式剪切所调节,三角形顶点固定于断层端点。Hardy和Ford拓展了这一理论并成功地建立数字模拟模型,Allmendinger进一步建立与完善了三角剪切的正演模型与反演方法。通过运动学模型预测结果与天然构造观察和相似模拟实验结果的对比分析,以及通过一系列力学模型对运动学模型的检验,三角剪切断层传播褶皱理论被证实并获得了广泛应用。对前陆盆地、克拉通盆地和走滑盆地的基底卷入型构造与走滑或斜向滑动构造,都可以应用三角剪切断层传播褶皱理论来分析变形样式及其分布特征。该理论可以有效地预测隐伏断层的初始破裂点、断层传播量与发育部位,已成功地应用于工程地质与地震灾害预报等方面。     

基于优化技术的权重计算方法在岩体质量评价中的应用

基于模糊数学和可拓学的岩体质量评价,其关键环节就是权重的确定。目前,尽管权重的确定方法有很多,但不能很方便地服务于实际工程。引入可拓学等级特征值的概念,将权重计算问题转化为优化问题来解决是一个新的有意义的探索。将混沌优化算法和可拓评判方法结合起来,对样本数据进行反分析,从而获得权重。根据实际情况选择影响指标,建立评价标准,提取样本数据,应用程序CAExWeigh.exe对样本数据进行分析。结合实际工程地质情况分析计算结果,表明该方法计算结果是可靠的;同时还表明,从一定意义上来说,权重是因素影响程度统计意义上的均值,且只有当其指标值在一定范围内变化才有意义。     

The effect of particle shape and hydrophobicity in flotation

The effect of particle shape on the flotation process has been investigated in laboratory experiments with monosized spherical ballotini and ground ballotini. The particles were treated by partial methylation with trimethylchlorosilane to achieve varying degrees of hydrophobicity. In flotation, the process of film thinning and liquid drainage is critical in the formation of stable bubble–particle attachments and this is affected by the particle shape and surface hydrophobicity. Flotation tests with different particle sizes were conducted in a modified batch Denver cell. Predictions from a computational fluid dynamic model of the flotation cell that incorporates fundamental aspects of bubble–particle attachment were compared with data from flotation tests. Contact angles of the particles were measured using a capillary rise technique to indicate surface hydrophobicity. Ground ballotini generally has higher flotation rates than spherical ballotini; the results are consistent with effects from faster film thinning and rupture at rough surfaces and are well correlated by the sphericity index.     

歧口凹陷歧北斜坡白云岩演化规律研究

在古近系沙河街组沙一段沉积期,为歧口凹陷最大湖扩期,在西南部整体古地理为宽缓的湖湾环境,气候潮湿温暖,物源供给较弱,在这种条件下,该地区发育大面积的碳酸盐岩沉积,以白云岩夹油页岩互层分布为特征。利用歧北斜坡两口重点井的岩心资料,对该区内的白云岩演化特征进行分析。研究表明,湖平面的升降决定了古地理环境,直接影响了白云岩发育的类型。歧北高斜坡区,水体较中斜坡浅,自下而上发育生屑灰岩、微晶云岩、灰质云岩、云质灰岩,表明古地理环境由粒屑滩—局限洼地—湖湾的演化过程;而在歧北中斜坡区,位于港西凸起周缘,早期主要为浅滩环境,发育灰质云岩和云质灰岩,向上过渡为微晶云岩、泥质云岩、泥岩,湖平面的多次升降,决定了该区古地理环境由浅滩—局限洼地—湖湾—半深湖的演化过程。通过地质钻探,该区在部分区域的白云岩已发现油层,证明该区白云岩储集层具有良好油气潜力,白云岩储集层已成为歧口凹陷古近系非常规油气增储的重要领域之一。