Evaporative systems and diagenetic patterns in the Calatayud Basin (Miocene,central Spain)

This paper concerns the evaporite units, depositional systems, cyclicity, diagenetic products and anhydritization patterns of the Calatayud Basin (nonmarine, Miocene, central Spain). In outcrop, the sulphate minerals of these shallow lacustrine evaporites consist of primary and secondary gypsum, the latter originating from the replacement of anhydrite and glauberite. In the evaporative systems of this basin, gypsiferous marshes of low salinity can be distinguished from central, saline lakes of higher salinity. In the gypsiferous marsh facies, the dominant, massive, bioturbated gypsum was partly replaced by synsedimentary chert nodules and siliceous crusts. In the saline lake facies, either cycles of gypsiferous lutite‐laminated gypsarenite or irregular alternations of laminated gypsum, nodular and banded glauberite, thenardite and nodular anhydrite precipitated. Early replacement of part of the glauberite by anhydrite also occurred. Episodes of subaerial exposure are represented by: (1) pedogenic carbonates (with nodular magnesite) and gypsiferous crusts composed of poikilitic crystals; and (2) nodular anhydrite, which formed in a sabkha. Additionally, meganodular anhydrite occurs, which presumably precipitated from ascending, highly saline solutions. The timing of anhydritization was mainly controlled by the salinity of the pore solutions, and occurred from the onset of deposition to moderate burial. Locally, a thick (>200 m) sequence of gypsum cycles developed, which was probably controlled by climatic variation. A trend of upward‐decreasing salinity is deduced from the base to the top of the evaporite succession.     

Deep to shallow lacustrine evaporites in the Libros Gypsum (southern Teruel Basin, Miocene, NE Spain): an occurrence of pelletal gypsum rhythmites

ABSTRACT A number of non‐marine evaporite units composed of primary gypsum were deposited in saline lakes that developed in the southern Teruel Basin (NE Spain) during the Miocene. In the basin depocentre, a continuum of lacustrine evaporite lithofacies influenced by the activity of organisms is displayed. The Libros Gypsum was deposited in a deep lake, in which water stratification became unstable with progressive shoaling. Rhythmites, composed of laminae of pelletal gypsum and laminae of very fine lenticular gypsum crystals mixed with siliceous microorganisms, formed in addition to gypsum turbidites, intraformational gypsum breccias and slump structures. The pelletal laminae originated from the faecal activity of animals (crustaceans?) ingesting gypsum crystallites in the lake water during episodes of maximum evaporation, whereas the laminae of very fine lenticular gypsum mixed with microorganisms accumulated during episodes of relative dilution. In the wide marginal zones of the basin, the Libros Gypsum unit consists of massive to thin‐bedded bioturbated gypsum and thin‐bedded clotted gypsum, which formed in intermediate to very shallow (palustrine) water depths. The bioturbated gypsum lithofacies were produced by the action of diverse organisms, presumably worms and coleopterans, and chironomid larvae to a lesser extent; the massive lithofacies precipitated in very shallow water; and the thin‐bedded lithofacies formed in shallow to deeper settings. The thin‐bedded clotted gypsum is a relatively deep facies that may have diverse origins (e.g. bioturbation, compaction, disruption of soft sediments and early diagenesis). There is a well‐developed metre‐scale cyclicity in the marginal lake sequences, which is not observed in the inner lake deposits. This suggests a depth control in the various lacustrine subenvironments to record cyclic evaporitic processes. The isotopic composition of the gypsum indicates early sulphate‐reducing bacterial activity in the bottom of the lake and suggests that the sulphate was derived from the chemical recycling of Triassic evaporites of the country rocks.     

吴江市地面沉降分析及预测

通过对吴江市地面沉降与开采地下水关系的研究，证实地面沉降在时空分布上与地下水开采量基本一致，地面沉降速率与地下水位呈明显的相关性，运用太沙基的有效应力原理及一维固结理论，对地面沉降极限量进行估算。     

INSAR技术在北京来广营地区地面沉降监测中的应用

北京市平原地区地面沉降危害日益显著,合成孔径雷达干涉测量（InSAR）具有快速、高精度、周期短等优势,可为城市地面沉降监测提供有效的技术手段。本文选用ENVISAT-1卫星SAR数据监测研究2004-2005年北京来广营地区地面沉降,利用InSAR差分技术得到该地区地面沉降监测结果。     

The Characteristics and Causes of Land Subsidence in Tanggu Based on the GPS Survey System and Numerical Simulation

Land subsidence is a severe hazard threatening Tanggu, a flat lowland area, and evidences of land subsidence can be seen throughout the city. A new reasonable GPS network was set up in this area from 2008 to 2010. The monitoring data show that land subsidence was serious and two main subsidence cones were obviously formed in the region. One emerged at Hujiayuan, with the maximum rate reaching 60 mm/a, and the influence region enlarged prominently from 2005 to 2010. The other one occurred at Kaifaqu, which became obvious only after 2005, and it showed a decreasing tendency with time. To analyze the causes of ground settlement, a correlation between groundwater withdrawal and land subsidence was firstly made. The results confirmed that over-exploitation of groundwater was the major cause for the severe settlement in Hujiayuan. Meanwhile, the subsidence of Kaifaqu was also related to groundwater withdrawal before 2005. However, the relationship became unconspicuous after 2005. To find the cause of this abnormity, a three-dimensional finite element numerical model, coupled with groundwater flow and subsidence, was built. The simulation results indicate that the subsidence induced by high-rise buildings is serious, but the affected range is limited and it also shows a decreasing trend with time, corresponding to the subsidence characteristics at Kaifaqu. Therefore, more attention should be paid to this hazard induced by engineering construction besides groundwater withdrawal, as more high-rise buildings are under construction in Tanggu.     

Subsidence hazards in different types of karst: evolutionary and speleogenetic approach

The typology of karst, based on distinguishing the successive stages of general hydrogeological evolution, between which major boundary conditions and the overall circulation pattern change considerably, gives a natural clue to classify and tie together karst breakdown settings, speleogenetic styles and breakdown development mechanisms. Subsidence hazards vary substantially between the different karst types, so that classifying individual karst according to typology can provide an integrated general assessment. This provides a useful basis for selection and realization of region- and site-specific assessment schemes and management strategies. Intrastratal karst types, subjacent karst in particular, are most potent in generating subsidence problems. Exposed karst types, especially open karst, are the least likely to pose subsidence hazard problems, despite their being recognized more obviously as karstic areas.     

Advances and Practices on the Research,Prevention and Control of Land Subsidence in Coastal Cities

Land subsidence severely threatens most of the coastal plains around the world where high productive industrial and agricultural activities and urban centers are concentrated. Coastal subsidence damages infrastructures and exacerbates the effect of the sea-level rise at regional scale. Although it is a well-known process, there is still much more to be improved on the monitoring, mapping and modeling of ground movements, as well as the understanding of controlling mechanisms. The International G...     

Temporal and spatial variations in tectonic subsidence in the Iberian Basin (eastern Spain): inferences from automated forward modelling of high-resolution stratigraphy (Permian–Mesozoic)

By subsidence analysis on eighteen surface sections and 6 wells, which cover large part of the Iberian Basin (E Spain) and which are marked by high-resolution stratigraphy of the Permian, Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous, we quantify the complex Permian and Mesozoic tectonic subsidence history of the basin. Backstripping analysis of the available high resolution and high surface density of the database allows to quantify spatial and temporal patterns of tectonically driven subsidence to a much higher degree than previous studies. The sections and wells have also been forward modelled with a new ‘automated' modelling technique, with unlimited number of stretching phases, in order to quantify variations in timing and magnitude of rifting. It is demonstrated that the tectonic subsidence history in the Iberian Basin is characterized by pulsating periods of stretching intermitted by periods of relative tectonic quiescence and thermal subsidence. The number of stretching phases appears to be much larger than found by earlier studies, showing a close match with stretching phases found in other parts of the Iberian Peninsula and allowing a clear correlation with discrete phases in the opening of the Tethys and Atlantic.     

Sedimentology and geochemistry of fluvio-lacustrine tufa deposits controlled by evaporite solution subsidence in the central Ebro Depression, NE Spain

The Urrea de Jalón tufa deposits constitute the 20‐ to 50‐m‐thick caprock (0·3 km²) of an isolated mesa. They disconformably overlie horizontal strata of the Tertiary Ebro Basin (NE Spain), which contains a thick succession of lacustrine gypsum and marls, followed by limestones, marls and, locally, fluvial sandstones and mudstones. The tufa deposits show a complex, large‐scale framework of basin‐like structures with centripetal dips that decrease progressively from the base to the top of the tufa succession, and beds that thicken towards the centre of the structure (cumulative wedge‐out systems). These geometries reveal that the tufa deposits were affected by differential synsedimentary subsidence. Distinct onlapping depressions reflect time migration of the subsiding areas. The studied carbonates are composed mostly of low‐Mg calcite, with minor quartz. Some samples have anomalously high contents of Fe, Mn and Ba that may exceed 1% (goethite, haematite and barite are present). Carbonate facies are: (a) macrophyte encrustation deposits; (b) bryophyte build‐ups; (c) oncolite and coated grain rudstones; (d) non‐concentric stromatolite‐like structures; (e) massive or bioturbated biomicrites; and (f) green and grey marls. Facies a and c show a great variety of microbial‐related forms. These facies can be arranged in dm‐ to 2‐m‐thick vertical associations representing: (i) fluvial–paludal sequences with bryophyte growths; (ii) pond‐influenced fluvial sequences; and (iii) lacustrine–palustrine sequences. The Urrea de Jalón tufa deposits formed in a fluvio‐lacustrine environment that received little alluvial sediment supply. Isotope compositions (δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O) reveal meteoric signatures and accord with such a hydrologically open system of fresh waters. The Fe, Mn and Ba contents suggest an additional supply of mineralized waters that could be related to springs. These would have been discharge points in the Ebro Depression of a regional aquifer of the Iberian Ranges. Rising groundwater caused the solution of the underlying evaporites and the synsedimentary subsidence of the tufa deposits.     

滇中红层膏盐溶蚀特征及其对水质的影响

滇中红层多含有石膏、岩盐等可溶盐矿物,在可溶盐富集地段,地下水往往表现为咸水或微咸水而不适宜饮用。文章以楚雄市谢家河河谷为例,基于钻探、物探、测井、水质分析等综合勘察资料,研究红层膏盐在地下水循环中的溶蚀特征并分析膏盐溶蚀对水质的影响。结果表明：膏盐溶蚀形式主要为散点状膏盐的溶蚀孔洞和裂隙状石膏的溶蚀裂隙,溶蚀强度主要受控于含水介质孔隙发育程度和地下水循环速度;浅层地下水循环速度快,虽可溶盐溶蚀强烈,但对地下水水质影响较弱,水质超标面较小;深层地下水循环速度慢,可溶盐溶蚀后富集于深层承压含水层中,导致地下水水质超标面大;断裂及其影响带导水造成深层承压水向浅层地下水越流,导致浅层地下水水质变差。     

Hydrologic and geoenvironmental characterization of wetlands in quarries of the Vinalopó Mitjà (Alicante, Spain)

This paper deals with the environmental characterization of the “Collao de Candela” enclave (Alicante, SE Spain), which in the early 1980s reported strong mining activity mainly due to the extraction of marls. The subsequent abandonment of such quarries produces floods in depressed areas that are constituted as pools. These anthropogenic wetlands are the object of this research. In order to characterize the geometry of the studied wetlands a bathymetry was carried out. Bathymetric data are very important for water managers tasked with assessing wetlands’ status. A chemical and mineralogical characterization has been carried out on the lithologies in the study area. A study was also conducted of the physical and chemical parameters of the waters contained in these pools during one hydrologic cycle. The climate of the zone, having elevated evapotranspiration measurements, favors a progressive concentration of salts in the pools consequence of runoff water washing, the evaporitic sediments as well as from elevated evaporation. The results obtained justify the environmental protection of these marl-gypsum mining quarries as potential wetlands.     

Karst subsidence as a control on the accumulation and preservation of aeolian deposits: A Pleistocene example from a proglacial outwash setting,Ebro Basin,Spain

Meltwater flows emanating from the Pyrenees during the Pleistocene constructed a braided outwash plain in the Ebro Basin and led to the karstification of the Neogene gypsum bedrock. Synsedimentary evaporite dissolution locally increased subsidence rates and generated dolines and collapses that enabled the accumulation and preservation of outwash gravels and associated windblown deposits that were protected from erosion by later meltwater flows. In these localized depocentres, maximum rates of wind deceleration resulted from airflow expansion, enabling the accumulation of cross‐stratified sets of aeolian strata climbing at steep angles and thereby preserving up to 5 m thick sets. The outwash plain was characterized by longitudinal and transverse fluvial gravel bars, channels and windblown facies organized into aeolian sand sheets, transverse and complex aeolian dunes, and loess accumulations. Flat‐lying aeolian deposits merge laterally to partly deformed aeolian deposits encased in dolines and collapses. Synsedimentary evaporite dissolution caused gravels and aeolian sand deposits to subside, such that formerly near‐horizontal strata became inclined and generated multiple internal angular unconformities. During episodes when the wind was undersaturated with respect to its potential sand transporting capacity, deflation occurred over the outwash plain and coarse‐grained lags with ventifacts developed. Subsequent high‐energy flows episodically reached the aeolian dune field, leading to dune destruction and the generation of hyperconcentrated flow deposits composed in part of reworked aeolian sands. Lacustrine deposits in the distal part of the outwash plain preserve rhythmically laminated lutites and associated Gilbert‐type gravel deltas, which developed when fluvial streams reached proglacial lakes. This study documents the first evidence of an extensive Pleistocene proglacial aeolian dune field located in the Ebro Basin (41˙50° N), south of what has hitherto been considered to be the southern boundary of Pleistocene aeolian deposits in Europe. A non‐conventional mechanism (evaporite karst‐related subsidence) for the preservation of aeolian sands in the stratigraphic record is proposed.     

Quantitative subsidence-uplift analysis of the Bajo Segura Basin (eastern Betic Cordillera, Spain): tectonic control on the stratigraphic architecture

The Bajo Segura Basin is located in the eastern Betic Cordillera, at present connected with the Mediterranean Sea to the east. It has a complete stratigraphic record from the Tortonian to the Quaternary, which has been separated into six units bounded by unconformities. This paper is concerned with the northern edge of the basin, controlled by a major strike–slip fault (the Crevillente Fault Zone, CFZ), where the most complete stratigraphic successions are found. The results obtained (summarised below) are based on an integrated analysis of the sedimentary evolution and the subsidence-uplift movements. Unit I (Early Tortonian) is transgressive on the basin basement and is represented by ramp-type platform facies, organised in a shallowing-upward sequence related to tectonic uplift during the first stages of movement along the CFZ. Unit II (lower Late Tortonian) consists of shallow platform facies at bottom and pelagic basin facies at top, forming a deepening-upward sequence associated with tectonic subsidence due to sinistral motion along the CFZ. Unit III (middle Late Tortonian) is made up of exotic turbiditic facies related to a stage of uplift and erosion of the southern edge of the basin. Unit IV (upper Late Tortonian) consists of pelagic basin facies at bottom and shallow platform facies at top, defining a shallowing-upward sequence related to tectonic uplift during continued sinistral movement on the basin-bounding fault. Units V (latest Tortonian–Messinian) and VI (Pliocene–Pleistocene p.p.) consist of shallowing-upward sequences deposited during folding and uplift of the northern margin of the basin. No definitive evidence of any major eustatic sea-level fall, associated with the ‘Messinian salinity crisis’, has been recorded in the stratigraphic sections studied.     

The Relationship between Tectonic Subsidence and BSR of Upper Neogene in the Deep-Water Area of the Northern Continental Slope, South China Sea

BSR (Bottom Simulating Reflector) occurs widely in the strata since the late Miocene in the deep-water area of the northern continental slope of South China Sea (SCS). It is an important seismic reference mark which identifies the gas hydrate and its distribution influenced by the tectonic movements. Single-point basin modeling was conducted using 473 points in the study area. To discuss the relationships between the tectonic subsidence and BSR, the volume and rate of tectonic subsidence in each geological time have been simulated. The results show that there are three tectonic accelerate subsidence processes in the study area since the late Miocene, especially since 1.8Ma the tectonic subsidence accelerates more apparently. Since the Late Miocene to Pleistocene, the rate of tectonic subsidence in deep-water underwent a transformation from weak to strong. The ratio of tectonic subsidence to the total subsidence was relatively high (65-70%). Through the superposition of the BSR developed areas and the contours of tectonic subsidence in this area, it was discovered that more than 80% of BSR tend to be distributed at the slope break or depression-uplift structural transfer zone and the average tectonic subsidence rate ranges from 70 m/Ma to 125 m/Ma.     

A sedimentary facies model for stepped,fluvial tufa systems in the Iberian Range (Spain): the Quaternary Piedra and Mesa valleys

Stratigraphic and sedimentological analyses of the Quaternary tufa and associated deposits in the Piedra and Mesa river valleys allowed a number of stages of their sedimentary evolution to be characterized, and a depositional sedimentary model for this north‐central sector of the Iberian Range (Spain) to be established. The proposed sedimentary facies model may explain tufa arrangements in other medium to high gradient, stepped, fluvial tufa systems with narrow transverse profiles occurring in temperate, semi‐arid areas, in both recent and past scenarios. There are several tufa deposits within the Piedra and Mesa river valleys that, over a maximum thickness of about 90 m, record one or more stages of tufa deposition produced following the fluvial incision of the bedrock or previous tufa deposits. Each depositional stage begins with coarse detrital sedimentation. Six fundamental, vertical sequences of tufa facies with small amounts of detrital material reveal the sedimentary processes that occurred in different fluvial environments: channel areas with: (i) free‐flowing water; (ii) barrages and/or cascades; and (iii) dammed water and palustrine floodplains. The proposed sedimentary model involves narrow, stepped, fluvial valleys in which tufa cascades were common. Alternating intervals of bryophyte and stromatolite facies commonly formed at some cascades. Many of these represented barrage‐cascade structures that consisted of phytoclast rudstones, thick phytoherms of mosses and associated stromatolites, and curtain‐shaped phytoherms of stems. Upstream of these structures, dammed areas with bioclastic sands and silts developed and palustrine vegetation grew. The channel stretches between barrages and/or cascades were loci for extensive stromatolite growth in fast flowing water. The palustrine floodplain was home to pools and drainage channels. The model also explains the growth of some barrages in the River Piedra that surpassed the height of the divide, with the diffluence of the main channel into a secondary course forming other tufa deposits in the area. The distribution and abundance of certain types of tufa facies in fluvial basins may be an indicator of differences in their gradients. The facies studied in this work suggest that the gradient of the ancient River Piedra was steeper than that of the ancient River Mesa. Assuming similar scenarios for climate and hydrology, the depositional settings mentioned above and their dimensions would have been determined mainly by the gradient and width of the associated river valleys. This sedimentary model may also be useful for inferring variations in other river basin slopes, as well as accounting for the presence of tufas in areas that normally have no permanent water input.     

Origin of the Rubian carbonate-hosted magnesite deposit, Galicia, NW Spain: mineralogical, REE, fluid inclusion and isotope evidence

The Rubian magnesite deposit (West Asturian—Leonese Zone, Iberian Variscan belt) is hosted by a 100-m-thick folded and metamorphosed Lower Cambrian carbonate/siliciclastic metasedimentary sequence—the Cándana Limestone Formation. It comprises upper (20-m thickness) and lower (17-m thickness) lens-shaped ore bodies separated by 55 m of slates and micaceous schists. The main (lower) magnesite ore body comprises a package of magnesite beds with dolomite-rich intercalations, sandwiched between slates and micaceous schists. In the upper ore body, the magnesite beds are thinner (centimetre scale mainly) and occur between slate beds. Mafic dolerite dykes intrude the mineralisation. The mineralisation passes eastwards into sequence of bedded dolostone (Buxan) and laminated to banded calcitic marble (Mao). These show significant Variscan extensional shearing or fold-related deformation, whereas neither Rubian dolomite nor magnesite show evidence of tectonic disturbance. This suggests that the dolomitisation and magnesite formation postdate the main Variscan deformation. In addition, the morphology of magnesite crystals and primary fluid inclusions indicate that magnesite is a neoformed hydrothermal mineral. Magnesite contains irregularly distributed dolomite inclusions (<50 μm) and these are interpreted as relics of a metasomatically replaced dolostone precursor. The total rare earth element (REE) contents of magnesite are very similar to those of Buxan dolostone but are depleted in light rare earth elements (LREE); heavy rare earth element concentrations are comparable. However, magnesite REE chondrite normalised profiles lack any characteristic anomaly indicative of marine environment. Compared with Mao calcite, magnesite is distinct in terms of both REE concentrations and patterns. Fluid inclusion studies show that the mineralising fluids were MgCl₂–NaCl–CaCl₂–H₂O aqueous brines exhibiting highly variable salinities (3.3 to 29.5 wt.% salts). This may be the result of a combination of fluid mixing, migration of pulses of variable-salinity brines and/or local dissolution and replacement processes of the host dolostone. Fluid inclusion data and comparison with other N Iberian dolostone-hosted metasomatic deposits suggest that Rubian magnesite probably formed at temperatures between 160 and 200°C. This corresponds, at hydrostatic pressure (500 bar), to a depth of formation of ~~5 km. Mineralisation-related Rubian dolomite yields δ ¹⁸O values (δ ¹⁸O: 12.0–15.4‰, mean: 14.4±1.1‰) depleted by around 5‰ compared with barren Buxan dolomite (δ ¹⁸O: 17.1–20.2‰, mean: 19.4±1.0‰). This was interpreted to reflect an influx of ¹⁸O-depleted waters accompanied by a temperature increase in a fluid-dominated system. Overlapping calculated δ ¹⁸O_fluid values (~+5‰ at 200°C) for fluids in equilibrium with Rubian dolomite and magnesite show that they were formed by the same hydrothermal system at different temperatures. In terms of δ ¹³C values, Rubian dolomite (δ ¹³C: −1.4 to 1.9‰, mean: 0.4±1.3‰) and magnesite (δ ¹³C: −2.3 to 2.4‰, mean: 0.60±1.0‰) generally exhibit more negative δ ¹³C values compared with Buxan dolomite (δ ¹³C: −0.2 to 1.9‰, mean: 0.8±0.6‰) and Mao calcite (δ ¹³C: −0.3 to 1.5‰, mean: 0.6±0.6‰), indicating progressive modification to lower δ ¹³C values through interaction with hydrothermal fluids. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios, calculated at 290 Ma, vary from 0.70849 to 0.70976 for the Mao calcite and from 0.70538 to 0.70880 for the Buxan dolostone. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios in Rubian magnesite are more radiogenic and range from 0.71123 to 0.71494. The combined δ ¹⁸O–δ ¹³C and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr data indicate that the magnesite-related fluids were modified basinal brines that have reacted and equilibrated with intercalated siliciclastic rocks. Magnesite formation is genetically linked to regional hydrothermal dolomitisation associated with lithospheric delamination, late-Variscan high heat flow and extensional tectonics in the NW Iberian Belt. A comparison with genetic models for the Puebla de Lillo talc deposits suggests that the formation of hydrothermal replacive magnesite at Rubian resulted from a metasomatic column with magnesite forming at higher fluid/rock ratios than dolomite. In this study, magnesite generation took place via the local reaction of hydrothermal dolostone with the same hydrothermal fluids in very high permeability zones at high fluid/rock ratios (e.g. faults). It was also possibly aided by additional heat from intrusive dykes or sub-cropping igneous bodies. This would locally raise isotherms enabling a transition from the dolomite stability field to that of magnesite.Editorial handling: F. Tornos     

Enterolithic folds in evaporites as microbially induced sedimentary structures: New model of formation and interpretation in the geological record

Enterolithic structures are stratigraphically localized folds in gypsum beds found in certain saline evaporitic sedimentary units in a wide variety of basins. Different models of formation have been proposed, all related to inorganic processes. These models include: diagenetic transformation of gypsum beds producing either displacive growth of crystals or volume changes; mechanical folding caused by compressional stress; and folding produced by slumping. The analysis of three Cenozoic evaporite sequences in Spain reveals that none of the previous models explains their origin and existence. In these outcrops, gypsum enterolithic structures occur in horizontal beds with parallel troughs and crests of the folds. They appear in shoreline facies of lacustrine environments and did not undergo major diagenetic transformations after the primary lithification of the original sediment. Based on these observations, together with the study of a modern analogue in Minorca, Spain, a new model is proposed for the genesis of enterolithic structures. This new model is based on the existence of a microbial mat exposed to brine concentration–dilution cycles and strong wind events. The high wind flow events enhanced folding of the microbial mat that became subaerially exposed and lithified due to subsequent evaporation. Therefore, the presence of enterolithic structures could be used as an indicator of shallow water environmental conditions subject to variations in brine concentration in areas with strong wind flow events. Previous studies of some evaporitic successions should be revisited, taking into account the proposed model, which would imply new depositional environment interpretations. At the same time, the proposed model could explain the existence of Kinneyia‐type structures, also known as wrinkle structures, formed beneath microbial mats in peritidal zones. Moreover, considering enterolithic structures as microbially induced sedimentary structures could be useful as evidence of microbial life in the ancient geological record and on other planets such as Mars.     

山东省矿山地面塌陷地质灾害现状、趋势分析及其防治

山东是我国矿业大省,采矿历史悠久,矿业在全省国民经济和社会发展中发挥着重要的基础性作用.随着矿业经济的发展,矿产资源开发规模和开发强度的增大,矿山地面塌(沉)陷问题越发突出,已成为主要的矿山地质灾害.本文中通过对煤、金、铁、石膏、滑石等矿山开采引发的地面塌(沉)陷地质灾害的现状分析,结合矿产开发规划对其发展趋势进行了分析,提出了充填、"自下往上"异向开采、帷幕注浆堵水和矿坑水预先疏干排供结合的防治措施.     

渤海湾盆地黄骅坳陷中北区新生代幕式沉降过程

黄骅坳陷中北区是位于渤海湾盆地中部的一个重要新生代构造单元.构造层序界面分析、同生断裂活动和盆地沉降史回剥分析表明该区经历了幕式沉降过程,沉降中心显示出规律性的迁移演化特征.馆陶组底界面为区域性裂后不整合界面,将研究区的演化划分为裂陷期和裂后期.在裂陷期的充填序列中,沙一段底界面为整个研究区都可以识别的显著的角度不整合界面,以此界面为界,盆地的裂陷期进一步划分为裂陷Ⅰ幕和裂陷Ⅱ幕.裂陷Ⅰ幕发育了Es₃-Es₂地层,断裂几何学和断裂的性质表明该幕构造活动为北西南东向伸展作用所致,而裂陷Ⅱ幕发育了Es₁-Ed地层,为近南北向拉伸作用的结果.裂后期,从早到晚则表现为由稳定热沉降到加速沉降的过程.分析认为上述盆地的幕式沉降过程与区域应力场的转变密切相关,受控于周缘板块的动力学事件,尤其是晚始新世之后,太平洋板块对欧亚大陆向西的加速俯冲,促使了郯庐断裂右旋活动向南延伸和穿过黄骅坳陷的兰聊断裂北段的活化,形成了位于渤海海域的南北向伸展叠加区,从根本上改变了黄骅坳陷中北区应力场的分布,由此导致了盆地同裂陷阶段的幕式演化.      

The Mw 7.4 Colima, Mexico, Earthquake of 21 January 2003: The Observed Damage Matrix in Colima City and its Comparison with the Damage Probability Matrix

The Mw 7.4 earthquake of 21 January 2003 occurred within the Mexican subduction zone and produced many damages of masonry constructions in the towns of Colima state, México. The macroseismic investigation of damages produced by the earthquake in Colima city was realized for 3,332 constructions within the area of study representing about 20% of the total city area and covered with the different type of constructions. The 7-grade scale of damage was used to describe the damage distribution. The damage matrix, constructed for the area, showed that the damage distribution varied from 63% of constructions with relatively slight damages (grades 1–3) to 29% of constructions that had significative damages (grades 4–5) and 8% of completely destructed or demolished masonry. The damage matrices, constructed for 12 subzones of the area of study, reflected two tendencies in the damage distributions: the predominance of slight damages of the recent constructions situated in the northern and eastern parts of the area and the predominance of significant damages of the older constructions in the southern and western parts of the area. It was observed a significant dependence of damage index upon the age of constructions and the type of masonry. The comparison of the observed damage matrix with the damage probability matrix calculated for Colima masonry in 1999 gives MM intensity VII in Colima.