对流边界层湍流通量及逆梯度输送参数化分析

"K"理论是众多气象预报模式中运用最广泛的湍流参数化方案之一,但无法解释"逆梯度"的输送,必须进行修正。最具代表性的修正方案有三种:方案Ⅰ(Deardroff方案)、方案Ⅱ(Holtslag和Moeng方案)和方案Ⅲ(刘烽方案)。本文利用香河的边界层观测资料对上述三种方案进行验证和比较,发现方案Ⅰ的结果在整个对流边界层(Convective Boundary Layer,CBL)呈系统性偏低,与观测不符;方案Ⅱ在CBL中上部能够再现逆梯度输送现象,基本能给出合理的湍流通量垂直分布,但在CBL的下部和上部与观测不符;方案Ⅲ的逆梯度项与高度有关,并在CBL中部达到最大,而其他两个方案中逆梯度项随高度不变。该方案不但在CBL中上部与方案Ⅱ的结果一致,并能合理表达整个CBL内的湍流通量分布,更接近观测结果。     

A laboratory study of the turbulent velocity characteristics in the convective boundary layer

Based on the measurement of the velocity field in the convective boundary layer （CBL） in a convection water tank with the particle image velocimetry （PIV） technique, this paper studies the characteristics of the CBL turbulent velocity in a modified convection tank. The experiment results show that the velocity distribution in the mixed layer clearly possesses the characteristics of the CBL thermals, and the turbulent eddies can be seen obviously. The comparison of the vertical distribution of the turbulent velocity variables indicates that the modeling in the new tank is better than in the old one. The experiment data show that the thermal＇s motion in the entrainment zone sometimes fluctuates obviously due to the intermittence of turbulence. Analyses show that this fluctuation can influence the agreement of the measurement data with the parameterization scheme, in which the convective Richardson number is used to characterize the entrainment zone depth. The normalized square velocity wi^2/w＊^2. at the top of the mixed layer seems to be time-dependent, and has a decreasing trend during the experiments. This implies that the vertical turbulent velocity at the top of the mixed layer may not be proportional to the convective velocity （w＊）.     

A numerical study of a TOGA-COARE squall-line using a coupled mesoscale atmosphere-ocean model

1. Introduction Air-sea interaction plays an important role in theglobal seasonal to inter-annual climate variability,most notably, the El Ni?no and Southern Oscillation(ENSO) phenomenon (Webster and Lukas, 1992). Be-cause of its widespread impacts on …     

A numerical study of second-order turbulent moments in the stably stratified nocturnal boundary layer

The structures and the vertical profiles of turbulent variance and covariance of the stably stratified boundary layer (SBL) are simulated with a second-order closure turbulence model. The results confirm that the vertical profiles of the dimensionless turbulence variance and covariance can be well represented by the form F = A(1 - Z / h)x. Here h is the height of SBL. and both exponent a and coefficient A are the functions of terrain, baroclinicity, radiation cooling and the state of temporal development of SBL. Comparing with Minnesota and Cabauw experiment data, we have analysed the value of a and expounded the main reasons that great difference in a exists among different literatures.     

Measurements of atmospheric dimethyl sulfide and carbon disulfide in the western Atlantic boundary layer

Shipboard measurements of atmospheric dimethyl sulfide were made during two transects along the east coast of the United States and at several stations in the Gulf of Maine. Limited measurements of carbon disulfide and hydrogen sulfide are also reported. The mean DMS mixing ratio was 29 pptv (=25, n=84, median 19 pptv) during the Atlantic transects, and 101 pptv (=67, n=77, median 79 pptv) in the Gulf of Maine. Distinct diurnal variations were found in the DMS data from the transects. The meteorology of the study area appears to control day-to-day differences in the magnitude of these diurnal variations, although rapid daytime oxidation is suggested in some cases. Diurnal variations were also evident in near-shore stations in the Gulf of Maine due to nocturnal boundary-layer inversion. Diurnal variation was not evident at other sites in the Gulf due to large scale changes in the atmospheric circulation pattern, which effectively masked any effects due to oxidation processes. Model simulations confirm that the DMS levels and diurnal variation found during the transects are not consistent with atmospheric oxidation processes alone. Atmospheric CS₂ and H₂S mixing ratios were less than 3 pptv during the transects, except for a single period of higher CS₂ mixing ratios (reaching 11 pptv) during advection of continental air. Calculations of the flux of oceanic sulfur to the eastern United States show that the contribution of natural sulfur to the North American sulfur budget is small compared to anthropogenic sources.     

A numerical study of the convective boundary layer

Computations of the buoyantly unstable Ekman layer are performed at low Reynolds number. The turbulent fields are obtained directly by solving the three-dimensional time-dependent Navier-Stokes equations (using the Boussinesq approximation to account for buoyancy effects), and no turbulence model is needed. Two levels of heating are considered, one quite vigorous, the other more moderate. Statistics for the vigorously heated case are found to agree reasonably well with laboratory, field, and large-eddy simulation results, when Deardorff's mixed-layer scaling is used. No indication of large-scale longitudinal roll cells is found in this convection-dominated flow, for which the inversion height to Obukhov length scale ratio –z _i /L _*=26. However, when heating is more moderate (so that –z _i /L _*=2), evidence of coherent rolls is present. About 10% of the total turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent heat flux, and 20% of the Reynolds shear stress, are estimated to be a direct consequence of the observed cells.     

近壁湍流边界层相干结构形成的动力学分析

以壁面脉冲扰动来构建湍流边界层近壁区对称与非对称相干结构理论模式,采用直接数值模拟的方法,研究了湍流边界层近壁区对称与非对称相干结构形成的理论机制和演化规律.计算结果显示非对称相干结构比对称相干结构更容易增长,这是由于非对称型结构能在湍流边界层近壁区域诱导产生较大的展向扰动速度,且不同初始结构类型分布对湍流边界层近壁区相干结构形成的动力学机制不同所致,从而加深了对近壁湍流边界层单个相干结构形成的某种动力学机制的认识理解.     

A numerical study of the marine stratocumulus cloud layer

A one-dimensional grid-level model including longwave radiative transfer and a level-4 second-order turbulent transfer closure which contains prognostic equations for turbulent quantities, is used to study the physics and dynamics of inversion-capped marine stratocumulus clouds.A set of numerical experiments had been performed to examined the role of sea surface temperature, large-scale vertical velocity, wind speed, and vertical wind shear in the formation and the structure of low-level clouds. For a given sea surface and geostrophic wind speed, stratocumulus clouds can grow higher with smaller large-scale subsidence as less dry air entrains into the cloud. Clouds grow higher with higher sea surface temperature for a given geostrophic wind speed and large-scale subsidence as a result of enhanced moist convection. In high wind speeds, the entire cloud deck is lifted up because of larger surface energy flux. In the budget studies of the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), the buoyancy term is a major source term when the wind speed and the vertical shear are small across the inversion top. When the wind speed and the vertical wind shear across the inversion top become large, the mixed layer is decoupled into a cloud and a subcloud layer. In the TKE budget studies, the shear generation term becomes an important term in the budgets of the TKE and the variance of vertical velocity.     

The influence of convergence movement on turbulent transportation in the atmospheric boundary layer

Classical turbulent K closure theory of the atmospheric boundary layer assumes that the vertical turbulent transport flux of any macroscopic quantity is equivalent to that quantity‘s vertical gradient transport flux. But a cross coupling between the thermodynamic processes and the dynamic processes in the atmospheric system is demonstrated based on the Curier-Prigogine principle of cross coupling of linear thermodynamics. The vertical turbulent transportation of energy and substance in the atmospheric boundary layer is related not only to their macroscopic gradient but also to the convergence and the di-vergence movement. The transportation of the convergence or divergence movement is important for the atmospheric boundary layer of the heterogeneous underlying surface and the convection boundary layer.Based on this, the turbulent transportation in the atmospheric boundary layer, the energy budget of the heterogeneous underlying surface and the convection boundary layer, and the boundary layer parameteri-zation of land surface processes over the heterogeneous underlying surface are studied. This research offers clues not only for establishing the atmospheric boundary layer theory about the heterogeneous underlying surface, but also for overcoming the difficulties encountered recently in the application of the atmospheric boundary layer theory.     

A numerical modeling study of the marine boundary layer over the Gulf Stream during cold air advection

A two-dimensional mesoscale model has been developed to simulate the air flow over the Gulf Stream area where typically large gradients in surface temperature exist in the winter. Numerical simulations show that the magnitude and the maximum height of the mesoscale circulation that develops downwind of the Gulf Stream depends on both the initial geostrophic wind and the large-scale moisture. As expected, a highly convective Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) develops over this area and it was found that the Gulf Stream plays an important role in generating the strong upward heat fluxes causing a farther seaward penetration as cold air advection takes place. Numerical results agree well with the observed surface fluxes of momentum and heat and the mesoscale variation of vertical velocities obtained using Doppler Radars for a typical cold air outbreak. Precipitation pattern predicted by the numerical model is also in agreement with the observations during the Genesis of Atlantic Lows Experiment (GALE).List of Symbols u east-west velocity [m s^–1] - v north-south velocity [m s^–1] - vertical velocity in coordinate [m s^–1] - w vertical velocity inz coordinate [m s^–1] - gq potential temperature [K] - q moisture [kg kg^–1] - scaled pressure [J kg^–1 K^–1] - U _g the east-south component of geostrophic wind [m s^–1] - V _g the north-south component of geostrophic wind [m s^–1] - vertical coordinate following terrain - x east-west spatial coordinate [m] - y north-south spatial coordinate [m] - z vertical spatial coordinate [m] - t time coordinate [s] - g gravity [m² s^–1] - E terrain height [m] - H total height considered in the model [m] - q _s saturated moisture [kg kg^–1] - p pressure [mb] - p ₀₀ reference pressure [mb] - P precipitation [kg m^–2] - vertical lapse rate for potential temperature [K km^–1] - L latent heat of condensation [J kg^–1] - C _p specific heat at constant pressure [J kg^–1 K^–1] - R gas constant for dry air [J kg^–1 K^–1] - R _v gas constant for water vapor [J kg^–1 K^–1] - f Coriolis parameter (2 sin ) [s^–1] - angular velocity of the earth [s^–1] - latitude [^o] - K _H horizontal eddy exchange coefficient [m² s^–1] - t integration time interval [s] - x grid interval distance inx coordinate [m] - y grid interval distance iny coordinate [m] - adjustable coefficient inK _H - subgrid momentum flux [m² s^–2] - subgrid potential temperature flux [m K s^–1] - subgrid moisture flux [m kg kg^–1 s^–1] - u _* friction velocity [m s^–1] - _* subgrid flux temperature [K] - q _* subgrid flux moisture [kg kg^–1] - w _* subgrid convective velocity [m s^–1] - z ₀ surface roughness [m] - L Monin stability length [m] - _s surface potential temperature [K] - k von Karman's constant (0.4) - v air kinematic viscosity coefficient [m² s^–1] - K _M subgrid vertical eddy exchange coefficient for momentum [m² s^–1] - K subgrid vertical eddy exchange coefficient for heat [m² s^–1] - K _q subgrid vertical eddy exchange coefficient for moisture [m² s^–1] - z _i the height of PBL [m] - h _s the height of surface layer [m]     

A numerical study of daily transitions in the convective boundary layer

We examine daily (morning–afternoon) transitions in the atmospheric boundary layer based on large-eddy simulations. Under consideration are the effects of the stratification at the top of the mixed layer and of the wind shear. The results describe the transitory behaviour of temperature and wind velocity, their second moments, the boundary-layer height Z _m (defined by the maximum of the potential temperature gradient) and its standard deviation σ _m , the mixed-layer height z _i (defined by the minimum of the potential temperature flux), entrainment velocity W _e, and the entrainment flux H _i . The entrainment flux and the entrainment velocity are found to lag slightly in time with respect to the surface temperature flux. The simulations imply that the atmospheric values of velocity variances, measured at various instants during the daytime, and normalized in terms of the actual convective scale w_*, are not expected to collapse to a single curve, but to produce a significant scatter of observational points. The measured values of the temperature variance, normalized in terms of the actual convective scale Θ_*, are expected to form a single curve in the mixed layer, and to exhibit a considerable scatter in the interfacial layer.     

Roles of Mesoscale Terrain and Latent Heat Release in Typhoon Precipitation： A Numerical Case Study

The mesoscale orographic effects on typhoon Aere＇s precipitation are simulated using an Advanced Regional Eta-coordinate Model （AREM） version 3.0. In particular, the effects of the latent heat release are studied by two comparable experiments： with and without condensational heating. The results show that the typhoon rainfall is tripled by the southeastern China mesoscale terrain, and the condensational heating is responsible for at least half of the increase. One role of the latent heat release is to warm the atmosphere, leading to a depression of the surface pressure, which then causes a larger pressure difference in the zonal direction. This pressure gradient guides the water vapour to flow into the foothills, which in turn amplifies the water vapour flux divergence amplified, causing the typhoon rainfall to increase eventually. The other role of the latent heat release is to make the convection more organized, resulting in a relatively smaller rain area and stronger precipitation.     

Thermal effects of urbanization and industrialization in the boundary layer: A numerical study

A numerical model developed by Pandolfo was used to compute changes in temperature resulting from changes in the physical characteristics of the surface due to urbanization and from the addition of radiatively active pollutants, such as a carbonaceous aerosol, that are characteristic of urbanization and industrialization. The model was simplified here by (1) omitting advection, and (2) by holding the pollutant concentration constant in time. The results show that changes in the physical properties of the surface, and not pollutants are the dominant factors in creating the urban heat island. Changes in the vertical thermal structure are caused by changes in the surface temperature near the surface and by the presence of pollutants at higher levels.     

A numerical study of cloud streets in the planetary boundary layer

A two-dimensional numerical model is used to study the influence of small non-precipitating clouds on horizontal roll vortices in the planetary boundary layer. The model explicitly represents the large-scale two-dimensional motions whilst small-scale eddies are parameterized by a buoyancy dependent mixing-length hypothesis. It is applied to conditions corresponding to an observed case of cloud street formation.     

数值模式中的大气边界层参数化方案综述

大气边界层对下垫面和自由大气之间的热量、动量和物质交换以及全球辐射的收支平衡有着非常重要的作用,数值模式中对边界层的模拟需要通过参数化方案表现出来。综述了数值模式中常用的边界层参数化方案,从闭合框架以及边界层内的重要物理过程这两个方面对各类方案进行了总结,并讨论了边界层参数化方案的发展方向。     

夜间城市边界层发展的数值研究

本文使用非定常非线性二维数值模式,研究夜间气流流经城市热岛上空引起的风场、温度场和垂直涡旋扩散参数的调整以及城市热岛环流的发展演变.     

Chemical perturbations in the planetary boundary layer and their relevance for chemistry transport modelling

The role of perturbations of reactive trace gas concentration distributions in turbulent flows in the planetary boundary layer (PBL) is discussed. The paper focuses on disturbances with larger spatial scales. Sequential nesting of a chemical transport model is applied to assess the effect of neglecting subgrid chemical perturbations on the formation and loss of ozone, NO _x , peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and HNO₃ calculated with a highly complex chemical mechanism. The results point to characteristic differences regarding the process of mixing of chemically reactive species in the PBL and lower troposphere.     

Estimation of turbulent sensible heat and momentum fluxes over a heterogeneous urban area using a large aperture scintillometer

The accurate determination of surface-layer turbulent fluxes over urban areas is critical to understanding urban boundary layer (UBL) evolution. In this study, a remote-sensing technique using a large aperture scintillometer (LAS) was investigated to estimate surface-layer turbulent fluxes over a highly heterogeneous urban area. The LAS system, with an optical path length of 2.1 km, was deployed in an urban area characterized by a complicated land-use mix (residential houses, water body, bare ground, etc.). The turbulent sensible heat (Q H) and momentum fluxes (τ) were estimated from the scintillation measurements obtained from the LAS system during the cold season. Three-dimensional LAS footprint modeling was introduced to identify the source areas ("footprint") of the estimated turbulent fluxes. The analysis results showed that the LAS-derived turbulent fluxes for the highly heterogeneous urban area revealed reasonable temporal variation during daytime on clear days, in comparison to the land-surface process-resolving numerical modeling. A series of sensitivity tests indicated that the overall uncertainty in the LAS-derived daytime Q H was within 20%-30% in terms of the influence of input parameters and the non-dimensional similarity function for the temperature structure function parameter, while the estimation errors in τ were less sensitive to the factors of influence, except aerodynamic roughness length. The 3D LAS footprint modeling characterized the source areas of the LAS-derived turbulent fluxes in the heterogeneous urban area, revealing that the representative spatial scales of the LAS system deployed with the 2.1 km optical path distance ranged from 0.2 to 2 km2 (a "micro-α scale"), depending on local meteorological conditions.     

MM5和ETA相似理论近地层方案对农田下垫面通量模拟比较研究

近地层湍流通量计算对于中尺度数值模式有重要意义,湍流通量的参数化是当前大气边界层研究的重要课题之一.选择青藏高原东缘大理观象台边界层通量观测系统,离线测试了WRF区域模式中的两种常用的近地层参数化方案(MM5相似理论非迭代方案A和ETA相似理论迭代方案B),并将参数化方案计算结果与边界层铁塔涡动相关法的观测值进行对比分析.在大理观象台观测场不同植被随季节交替的状况下,根据边界层铁塔4层高度风速拟合,发现近地层空气动力学粗糙度随季节变化特征明显.将拟合的空气动力学粗糙度输入模式参数化方案进行通量计算.结果表明:稳定度是影响近地层参数化方案精度的重要因素,在不稳定条件下方案B低估了动量通量,方案A优于方案B,而在稳定条件下方案A低估了动量通量,方案B优于方案A,两种方案总体来看误差不大.对于大理边界层通量观测场农田植被交替的环境条件,不同季节下垫面植被类型的差异,以及植被的稀疏对近地层参数化方案湍流通量计算结果的精度有显着影响.方案B考虑了空气动力学粗糙度z₀和热量粗糙度z_0h的差异,不稳定条件下感热通量计算结果在裸土或稀少植被条件下明显优于方案A.针对方案B不稳定条件下感热通量计算结果在裸土下垫面仍出现高估的现象,使用了Zeng等1998年提出的用辐射地表温度订正裸土下垫面感热能量方法后,计算结果也有明显改善.