橄榄石单晶体高温蠕变

作者首次采用中国河北大麻坪橄榄石单晶体做原始变形材料,在温度1200—1500℃,应力16—175 MPa,氧分压10~(-4)—10~(-10)atm 条件下,对上地幔流变学的有关三个问题进行了详细研究:(1)化学环境(氧分压和斜方辉石缓冲剂)对橄榄石流变性质的制约作用;(2)详细测定橄榄石单晶体流变参数和建立流变本构方程;(3)对橄榄石单晶体[110]c 方向的三个蠕变机制进行研究,这些新的高温实验成果第一次为研究中国东部岩石圈动力学提供了有意义的定量资料.     

橄榄石晶格优选方位和上地幔地震波速各向异性

根据福建省明溪幔源包体（二辉橄榄岩）中橄榄石晶格优选方位（ＬＰＯ）及其晶体弹性刚度系数,计算了地震波速度及其各向异性．研究结果表明,该区地震波各向异性是由橄榄石塑性流动产生晶格优选方位而引起的．与构造背景有关的ＶＰ,Ｖｓ１,Ｖｓ２和△Ｖｓ分布特征表明,中国东南沿海地区上地幔物质流动方向（由ＮＷＷ向ＳＥＥ）与橄榄石［１００］定向排列方向（ａ轴）和ＶＰ最大方向有一致的趋势．     

橄榄石晶格优选方位和上地幔地震波速各向异性

根据福建省明溪幔源包体（二辉橄榄岩）中橄榄石晶格优选方位（ＬＰＯ）及其晶体弹性刚度系数，计算了地震波速度及其各向异性．研究结果表明，该区地震波各向异性是由橄榄石塑性流动产生晶格优选方位而引起的．与构造背景有关的ＶＰ，Ｖｓ１，Ｖｓ２和△Ｖｓ分布特征表明，中国东南沿海地区上地幔物质流动方向（由ＮＷＷ向ＳＥＥ）与橄榄石［１００］定向排列方向（ａ轴）和ＶＰ最大方向有一致的趋势．     

水对地幔矿物弹性性质的影响及其地球物理意义

构成地幔的大部分名义上无水矿物,包括橄榄石及其同质异象体、辉石以及石榴石等,均可以羟基形式赋存一定量的水.水在地幔不同深度的出现不仅对一系列物理性质(包括密度、波速、熔融温度、电导率和流变强度等)有重要影响,并且对地幔的动力学行为、横向结构和成分的不均一性以及地球深部的演化过程具有重要意义.近年来,地震学研究在地幔不同深度和不同区域均发现低速带的存在,而观测到的地幔速度异常很可能与地幔中的水密切相关.高温高压矿物学利用实验和理论计算,对水是如何影响地幔主要构成矿物的弹性模量和波速进行了深入研究,并取得了大量进展.这些研究对正确理解地幔速度异常的形成机制,查明地幔中水的分布,探寻水在地球内部的迁移形式至关重要.本文针对近年来高温高压矿物学在地幔含水矿物弹性模量的研究成果进行了综述,介绍了该研究方向的进展和不足,并对未来的研究方向进行了阐述.     

上地幔各向异性的反演方法

详细推导了弱各向异性介质的地震波速，在此基础上介绍了用Pn震相研究上地幔各向异性的几种具体算法；推导了用SKS震相和ScS震相反学下地幔各向异性的方法、优缺点及几种方法的相互关系。     

云南地区上地幔各向异性研究

对云南23个数字地震台11次地震的SKS记录，采用理论切向分量与实测切向分量拟合的方法，确定了快S波的偏振方向和快、慢波之间的时间延迟．结果表明，除鹤庆台外，在各台都观测到了S波分裂现象；云南地区的快方向总体特征是北北东向，时间延迟变化范围为0.5～2.0ｓ．在地质构造复杂地区断层对分析的影响很大．分析表明，作为青藏高原与华南块体之间的过渡带，云南地区的S波快方向反映了印度板块向欧亚板块俯冲是该地区地球动力学的基本背景，而由于青藏高原隆起造成的康滇菱形块体的南东-南南东向运动是造成复杂构造、应力环境的重要因素．快方向与上地幔运动的方向存在差异，说明在云南地区低速层或者软流层的运动与地壳块体的运动之间存在着复杂的耦合作用，构造驱动力如同向北东方向张开的手掌．从时间延迟出发，推断各向异性层的厚度为60～225ｋｍ．其变化范围与低速层埋深的变化范围（104～260ｋｍ）相当，认为各向异性层顶面可能在地壳底部，也可能在低速层，且在不同地点是不相同的，这与云南及周边地区莫霍面变化剧烈有因果关系．进一步推断出上地幔的各向异性主要存在于岩石圈而不是整个上地幔．      

弹性岩石层,区域重力异常和上地幔小尺度对流

在小尺度地幔对流模型的基础上,建立了顾及岩石层与地幔耦合的地幔对流模型,考虑到岩石层对上地幔小尺度对流的弹性响应,将上地幔视为一均匀的等粘滞系数的牛顿粘滞流体,其对注能量来源于下地幔,用热流体动力学基本方程得到地上地幔对流在壳幔边界处的垂向应力作为弹性板弯曲方程的垂直加载,来耦合弹性岩石层和可流动地幔,推导了两者耦合下区域重力异常和上地幔小尺度对流的相关方程,用以反演上地幔小尺度对流场模式和岩石层底部拖力场格局,对比了有,无弹性岩石层影响的模型之间的差异,并对模型应用范围,特别要板块边界水平均造力可能产生的影响,作了进一步探讨。     

用地震面波研究上地幔各向异性

本文论述了上地幔各向异性的参数描述和主要证据,以及与地球动力学的关系。并就近几年来国外利用地震面波研究上地幔各向异性的重要成果和主要方法作了综合评述。     

镁橄榄石多晶体的烧结—热压合成

采用可控热力学环境高温炉和活塞圆筒式等静压实验装置合成矿物多晶体的烧结－热压技术，以镁橄榄石多晶体的合成为例，讨论了技术细节和样品的成岩机制，此技术可以合成得ｃｍ量级、化学和矿物组分可控的多晶体岩石样品，这些人工合成的晶体结构均匀，密度能够达到其理论值的９８％以上。     

根据地震面波衰减讨论大陆地壳与上地幔的滞弹性结构和演化

上地壳和上地幔剪切波固有品质因子Ｑμ的区域性变化是显著的。在古老而稳固的克拉通中的值比构造活动区中的值在两个深度范围都大一个或一个以上的量级。Ｑμ依赖于频率,至少在１Ｈｚ附近是如此,而这种频率相关在上地壳也有区域性变化。它在构造活动区较低而在稳定区较高。由于Ｑμ在各地区有大的变化,对上地壳的Ｑμ和由Ｌｇ尾波（ＱＬｇ＾ｃ）估计得到的Ｑ绘制区域性变化图是容易做到的,尽管这两种方法都可能有很大的不确定性     

Magnetic properties of olivine basalt: Application to Mars

The natural remanent magnetisation (NRM) of basalt lava containing (oxidised) magnetic phases is usually assumed to be proportional to the weight percent of magnetic phases. It is shown here that olivine basalt has a different behaviour. The NRM intensity increases at an increasing rate with the amount of magnetic phases. This is attributed to the oxidation of olivine during cooling of the basalt that leads to the exsolution of magnetite in a single domain state. In this way, olivine basalt is found to become an order of magnitude more magnetic than basalt that does not contain olivine. A simple explanation for the magnetic anomalies on Mars is offered, based upon these findings and Mössbauer spectroscopy data from Gusev crater on Mars.     

Elastic properties of the olivine and spinel polymorphs of Mg2GeO4, and evaluation of elastic analogues

The single-crystal elastic moduli of the olivine and spinel phases of Mg₂GeO₄ have been measured using Brillouin scattering spectra. The moduli for the olivine phase are: C₁₁ = 3.12, C₂₂ = 1.87, C₃₃ = 2.17, C₆₆ = 0.71, C₂₃ = 0.66, C₃₁ = 0.65 and C₁₂ = 0.60. The moduli for the spinel phase are: C₁₁ = 3.00, C₄₄ = 1.26 and C₁₂ = 1.18.These data are analyzed to define the best type of elastic analogue for magnesium orthosilicates. The character of the many-bodied, non-central force associated with the divalent cation is found to significantly influence the relative magnitudes of the elastic moduli. Since the nature of the many-bodied, non-central force is quite different for alkaline earth cations than for transition metal cations, we conclude that materials which contain one of these cation types is not a good analogue for materials with the other type. Magnesium orthogermanate, however, is a good analogue of magnesium orthosilicate. On the other hand, the high elastic anisotropy of the spinel phase of the germanate suggests that the germanium tetrahedron is less rigid under shear than the corresponding silicon tetrahedron. The success of the magnesium orthogermanate to model the magnesium orthosilicate is probably a result of the mechanical isolation of the tetrahedra, thus requiring the conclusions of this study to be further tested before applying them to other silicate systems.     

He diffusion in olivine

Helium diffusion in olivine (dunite xenolith) has been measured in the temperature range 1180–1460°C; a linear Arrhenius function was obtained with an activation energy of 120₋₂₇⁺³² kcal/mole, and a pre-exponential factor (D₀) = 2.2 × 10⁸ cm²/s.

Diffusion mechanisms are not a viable means of degassing He from the mantle. Olivine phenocrysts can be expected to retain previously trapped He, during cooling in extrusive basalts, provided the flow units are thinner than 50 m; xenoliths will retain mantle He signatures only if magma transport times are less than 50 years, or if the He fugacity in the magma is high enough to prevent xenolith degassing. The lower oceanic crust is probably substantially degassed of He. Trapped He will be qualitatively retained in quenched submarine basalt glass only if the cooling rate is faster than 5 × 10¹⁴°C/m.y.; glass at several centimeters depth in a basalt flow (near the spherulite zone) will have cooling rates lower than this, so He loss may be significant in many basalt glass samples.     

Point-defect formation parameters in olivine

The formation internal energy and volume of the point-defect species in olivine are derived for a number of approximate charge-neutrality conditions. The formation parameters of an effectively charged point defect are a function of the approximate condition of charge neutrality. Since the approximate charge-neutrality condition depends upon the partial pressure of oxygen and the activity of enstatite in olivine, changes in the magnitude of these thermodynamic-state variables result in different values of the formation parameters if the charge-neutrality regime is altered. The fractional change in the formation internal energies of the energetically unfavorable defects, such as Si vacancies, is small between the charge-neutrality regions while the fractional change for the favorable defects, such as Mg vacancies, is large.     

Thermal diffusivity of olivine

The thermal diffusivity of a naturally occurring polycrystalline olivine (Fo₉₁Fa₀₉) was measured by the Flash technique in the temperature range of 450–1500 K. At 450 K the thermal diffusivity was 10.7 × 10^?7 m²/s and decreased as a function of reciprocal temperature to 7.0 × 10^?7 m²/s at 800 K. From that temperature, the values gradually increased to a maximum of 7.8 × 10^?7 m²/s at 1000 K, and then steadily decreased to 5.6 × 10^?7 m²/s at 1500 K. The unusual decrease above 1000 K was caused by a reduction of the previously oxidized samples. The olivine's oxidation state plays a significant role in the value of thermal diffusivity at high temperatures.     

Homologous temperature of olivine: Implications for creep of the upper mantle and fabric transitions in olivine

The homologues temperature of a crystalline material is defined as T/T_m, where T is temperature and T_m is the melting(solidus) temperature in Kelvin. It has been widely used to compare the creep strength of crystalline materials. The melting temperature of olivine system,(Mg,Fe)_2SiO_4, decreases with increasing iron content and water content, and increases with confining pressure. At high pressure, phase transition will lead to a sharp change in the melting curve of olivine. After calibrating previous melting experiments on fayalite(Fe_2SiO_4), the triple point of fayalite-Fe_2SiO_4 spinel-liquid is determined to be at 6.4 GPa and 1793 K. Using the generalized means, the solidus and liquidus of dry olivine are described as a function of iron content and pressure up to 6.4 GPa. The change of T/T_m of olivine with depth allows us to compare the strength of the upper mantle with different thermal states and olivine composition. The transition from semi-brittle to ductile deformation in the upper mantle occurs at a depth where T/T_m of olivine equals 0.5. The lithospheric mantle beneath cratons shows much smaller T/T_m of olivine than orogens and extensional basins until the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary where T/T_m 0.66, suggesting a stronger lithosphere beneath cratons. In addition, T/T_m is used to analyze deformation experiments on olivine. The results indicate that the effect of water on fabric transitions in olivine is closely related with pressure. The hydrogen-weakening effect and its relationship with T/T_m of olivine need further investigation. Below 6.4 GPa(200 km), T/T_m of olivine controls the transition of dislocation glide from [100] slip to [001] slip. Under the strain rate of 10~(-12)–10~(-15) s~(-1) and low stress in the upper mantle, the [100](010) slip system(A-type fabric) becomes dominant when T/T_m 0.55–0.60. When T/T_m 0.55–0.60, [001] slip is easier and low T/T_m favors the operation of [001](100) slip system(C-type fabric). This is consistent with the widely observed A-type olivine fabric in naturally deformed peridotites, and the C-type olivine fabric in peridotites that experienced deep subduction in ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic terranes. However, the B-type fabric will develop under high stress and relatively low T/T_m. Therefore, the homologues temperature of olivine established a bridge to extrapolate deformation experiments to rheology of the upper mantle. Seismic anisotropy of the upper mantle beneath cratons should be simulated using a four-layer model with the relic A-type fabric in the upper lithospheric mantle, the B-type fabric in the middle layer, the newly formed A- or B-type fabric near the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary, and the asthenosphere dominated by diffusion creep below the Lehmann discontinuity. Knowledge about transition mechanisms of olivine fabrics is critical for tracing the water distribution and mantle flow from seismic anisotropy.     

Fracture surface energy of olivine

A relatively simple indentation technique for the rapid measurement of fracture surface energy, , of small samples is described. The reliability of this technique is assessed by testing soda-lime glass for which there are good independent fracture mechanics determinations of fracture surface energy. The indentation technique gives a value for of 4.33 J m^–2 which compares favourably with the accepted value of 3.8 J m^–2. Fracture surface energies of the {010} and {001} cleavage planes of single crystal olivine (modal composition Fo₈₈Fa₁₂) are then determined and compared with theoretical estimates of the thermodynamic surface energy, , calculated from atomistic parameters ( is equal to in the absence of dissipative processes during crack extension). The experimental values for _{010} and _{001} are respectively 0.98 J m^–2 and 1.26 J m^–2. The calculated values of _{010} and _{001} are respectively in the range from 0.37 J m^–2 to 8.63 J m^–2 and 12.06 J m^–2. The particular advantages of the indentation technique for the study of the fracture surface energies of geological materials are outlined.     

Research on propagation properties of elastic waves in two-phase anisotropic media

IntroductionItiswellknownthatanisotropylieswidelyintheundergroundmedia.Anisotropicmediawhicharemetintheseismicengineeringandseismicexplorationofenergyaremainlycausedbytheperiodicthinlayers(PTL)andextensivedilatancyanisotropy(EDA).Insuchmedia,anisotropyleadstomorecomplicatepropagationofseismicwave,thesignificantfeatureinanisotropicmediaisvelocityanisotropy.Infact,undergroundstrataareverycomplicated,whichareusuallycomposedofsolidframeandfluid(suchasoil,gasesorwater)inpores.Inordertostudyseism…     

Characterizing the effect of elastic interactions on the effective elastic properties of porous,cracked rocks

Elastic interactions between pores and cracks reflect how they are organized or spatially distributed in porous rocks. The principle goal of this paper is to understand and characterize the effect of elastic interactions on the effective elastic properties. We perform finite element modelling to quantitatively study how the spatial arrangement of inclusions affects stress distribution and the resulting overall elasticity. It is found that the stress field can be significantly altered by elastic interactions. Compared with a non‐interacting situation, stress shielding considerably stiffens the effective media, while stress amplification appreciably reduces the effective elasticity. We also demonstrate that the T‐matrix approach, which takes into account the ellipsoid distribution of pores or cracks, can successfully characterize the competing effects between stress shielding and stress amplification. Numerical results suggest that, when the concentrations of cracks increase beyond the dilute limit, the single parameter crack density is not sufficient to characterize the contribution of the cracks to the effective elasticity. In order to obtain more reliable and accurate predictions for the effective elastic responses and seismic anisotropies, the spatial distribution of pores and cracks should be included. Additionally, such elastic interaction effects are also dependent on both the pore shapes and the fluid infill.     

Water retention effects on elastic properties of Opalinus shale

Shales play an important role in many engineering applications such as nuclear waste, CO₂ storage and oil or gas production. Shales are often utilized as an impermeable seal or an unconventional reservoir. For both situations, shales are often studied using seismic waves. Elastic properties of shales strongly depend on their hydration, which can lead to substantial structural changes. Thus, in order to explore shaly formations with seismic methods, it is necessary to understand the dependency of shale elastic properties on variations in hydration. In this work, we investigate structural changes in Opalinus shale at different hydration states using laboratory measurements and X-ray micro-computed tomography. We show that the shale swells with hydration and shrinks with drying with no visible damage. The pore space of the shale deforms, exhibiting a reduction in the total porosity with drying and an increase in the total porosity with hydration. We study the elastic properties of the shale at different hydration states using ultrasonic velocities measurements. The elastic moduli of the shale show substantial changes with variations in hydration, which cannot be explained with a single driving mechanism. We suggest that changes of the elastic moduli with variations in hydration are driven by multiple competing factors: (1) variations in total porosity, (2) substitution of pore-filling fluid, (3) change in stiffness of contacts between clay particles and (4) chemical hardening/softening of clay particles. We qualitatively and quantitatively analyse and discuss the influence of each of these factors on the elastic moduli. We conclude that depending on the microstructure and composition of a particular shale, some of the factors dominate over the others, resulting in different dependencies of the elastic moduli on hydration.