不同含水率砂岩无损检测参数的尺度效应研究

利用螺旋CT机和智能超声波测速仪对5种尺寸的砂岩试样进行干燥及不同饱和条件下的无损检测试验。试验结果表明,当试件直径一定时(D=50 mm),真空饱和法吸水率比自然浸水法略大,饱和吸水率与试件高度几乎成线性相关,试件两个方向的尺寸比值为2.0附近时其吸水能力较强,高径比最大的h/D=3.5时其吸水能力最差;由于岩石天然缺陷造成的各向异性,试件尺寸选取越小其各向异性指数越高,尺寸足够大其宏观均匀性才明显;砂岩的宏观力学参数和细观特征都存在尺度效应,当试件高径比h/D2.0时岩样的弹性模量波动比较大,当高径比h/D≥2.0时试件计算弹性模量随着高度的增加而缓慢增加。得到了不同含水率砂岩无损检测参数的尺度效应方程,公式表明砂岩的吸水效果与试件的纵波波速的平方和CT数反比例相关,对于研究水岩相互作用时考虑试件的尺度效应有一定的指导意义。     

Applying sandstone petrofacies to unravel the Upper Carboniferous evolution of the Paganzo Basin, northwest Argentina

A compositional study of sandstones belonging to the lower section of the Paganzo Group (Middle Carboniferous–Early Permian) in the Paganzo Basin (northwestern Argentina) helps unravel the stratigraphic and paleogeographic evolution of the basin. Three morphotectonic units constitute the complex basement of the basin: (1) to the east, the igneous–metamorphic basement of the Sierras Pampeanas and Famatina systems; (2) to the west, the Precordillera, made up of Early and Middle Paleozoic sedimentary rocks; and (3) the Upper Paleozoic volcanic arc along the western boundary with the Río Blanco Basin. On the basis of sandstone detrital modes of the Lagares, Malanzán, Loma Larga, Guandacol, Tupe, Punta del Agua, and Río del Peñón formations, seven petrofacies are distinguished: quartzofeldespathic (QF), quartzofeldespathic-metamorphic enriched (QF-Lm), quartzofeldespathic-sedimentary enriched (QF-Ls), mixed quartzolithic (QL), quartzolithic-volcanic (QLv), volcanolithic-quartzose (LvQ), and volcanolithic (Lv). The spatial and temporal distribution of these petrofacies suggest an evolutive model for the Upper Paleozoic sedimentary filling of the basin that includes three “petrosomes”: (1) the basement petrosome, a clastic wedge of arkosic composition that diachronically prograded and thinned from east to west; (2) the recycled orogen petrosome, revealing the Protoprecordillera as a positive element in the western Paganzo Basin during the Namurian; and (3) the volcanic arc petrosome, recording volcanic activity along the western margin of Gondwana during the Westphalian.     

Some tectonic implications of sandstone petrofacies in the Coffs Harbour Association,New England Orogen,New South Wales

The Coffs Harbour Association, New England Orogen, consists of thick, monotonous units of Late Palaeozoic greywacke, laminated siltstone and mudstone, and massive argillite. The rocks of the association have a common provenance, being derived predominantly from a volcanic arc source consisting of mainly dacite, with minor andesite and rhyolite. The Coramba beds in the Coffs Harbour Block are divided into four petrofacies based on QFL data and the occurrence of detrital hornblende. Upwards, the petrofacies are: A—volcanolithic, B—feldspathic, C—horn‐blende‐feldspathic, D—hornblende‐volcanolithic. The petrofacies and vertical variation in non‐volcanic detritus indicate minor erosion and exposure of a non‐volcanic source, followed first by recommencement of volcanism, penecontemporaneously with sedimentation, then further erosion of the non‐volcanic source area. There was little temporal change in the character of volcanic detritus shed from the source area. Equivalents of the four petrofacies are recognised in other blocks of the association, although because of structural complexity, a complete A‐D sequence has not been found. The Coffs Harbour sandstones are similar to sands in modern ocean basins derived from an arc system of either continental margin or island arc type. The sandstones are not similar to recycled orogenic provenances, such as found in accretionary prisms or trench‐slope basins; the compositions suggest that the sandstones were deposited in either a forearc or backarc setting.     

Petrography and temporal changes in petrofacies of deep-marine Ainsa–Jaca basin sandstone systems, Early and Middle Eocene, Spanish Pyrenees

A petrographic study of 157 samples from the Early to Middle Eocene deep-marine sandy systems, Ainsa–Jaca basin, Spanish Pyrenees, shows that each system has a characteristic petrofacies. Three main petrofacies are recognized. Petrofacies 1 sandstones comprise mainly siliciclastic grains (≥80%), subordinate terrigenous carbonate grains and negligible intrabasinal grains. Petrofacies 2 hybrid arenites are characterized by significant amounts (≥10%) of intrabasinal carbonate grains. Petrofacies 3 calcilithites contain relatively abundant (≥10%) extrabasinal carbonate grains. On the basis of these petrofacies, a revised correlation of the sandy systems is proposed between the more proximal Ainsa basin, and the more distal Jaca basin sediments, now separated by the Boltaña anticline, across which it is impossible to actually trace out individual beds or sandstone packages between both basins. The arenite composition in the Ainsa and Jaca basins is interpreted as being controlled mainly by synsedimentary tectonic processes that led to changes in sediment sources during basin evolution.     

Field sampling in estuaries: The relationship of scale to variability

The spatial/temporal scaling problem (i.e., fitting a given research question to the dimensions of variability of the study area) is particularly pronounced in highly variable systems such as estuaries. Long-term, multidisciplinary studies in the Apalachicola Bay system were used to evaluate variation of different physical, chemical, and biological factors. Specific limitations of weekly, monthly, and quarterly sampling intervals were directly related to the efficiency of the sampling gear, the range of variation in the study parameters, and specific biological features (motility, recruitment, natural history) of infaunal macroinvertebrates and epibenthic organisms. There are families of spatial and temporal scaling phenomena that should be considered when establishing a given field sampling program. The dimensions of variation change along spatial/temporal gradients of salinity, habitat complexity, and productivity and among different levels of biological organization. The limits of variation define the needed sampling effort for a given level of estimation. Without an adequate evaluation of such variation, representative samples cannot be taken; the resulting inadequate sampling effort often precludes reliable comparisons and robust generalization. There is a continuum of scaling dimensions (and sampling problems) that ranges from small-scale experimental approaches to system-wide analyses. Misapplication of such scaling estimates has led to overgeneralization of experimental results. Currently, there is widespread misapplication of combinations of unrelated, limited sampling efforts to broad-scale resource problems. The loss of valuable estuarine resources is favored by the lack of adequate scientific databases that are consistent with the dimensions of the individual study areas. Unless experimental studies and field sampling programs are scaled to the dimensions of the research problem and the study area in question there will be a continued proliferation of trivial studies at one end of the continuum and the progressive deterioration of estuarine resources at the other.     

Influence of sampling scale on apparent distribution of meiofauna on a sandflat

The effect of sampling scale on apparent distribution of meiofauna was demonstrated by simulating the sampling of a “known” distribution with three different sampling schemes. Small-scale sampling gave better reproduction of the original pattern than larger scales, which tended to homogenize patchiness. My results suggest that for intracommunity meiofaunal research, roughly fifty 0.5–1.0 cm² cores is a reasonable first guess “optimum” sampling scheme. The position of the cores should be random but their position relative to each other should be noted so the spatial information may be utilized in analysis.     

北疆侏罗系与白垩系泥质砂岩物理力学特性对比分析及其能量损伤演化机制研究

以石英云母片岩为对象,采用单轴压缩试验,探讨这类脆性片理化岩石在干燥和含水状态下的特征强度与能量演化的加载方向效应,并结合微观组构特征与宏观破坏模式,揭示片岩力学行为各向异性的机制。结果表明：(1)加载过程中,能量演化曲线与岩石的变形损伤变化有较好的对应关系,据此可快速准确地确定岩石的特征强度;(2)干燥和含水状态下片岩的特征强度皆表现为α=90°>α=0°>α=30°,其中,α=30°时,片岩强度对水的响应更为敏感,水对片岩的强度各向异性有一定增强作用;(3)α=90°试样的能量存储与耗散始终高于α=0°、30°试样,但相比α=90°而言,α=30°时,片岩的岩爆倾向性更强,岩石的损伤发展较为迅速;(4)岩石中的片状矿物和微裂隙为水的润滑、软化、水楔作用提供了物质基础,占主导地位的水作用随加载方向有所不同;(5)岩石内的片状矿物定向排列与软硬层近互层状分布的微观结构决定了裂纹产生与扩展机制的加载方向效应,本质上控制着岩石的强度与能量的各向异性。     

The effect of scale on the interpretation of geochemical anomalies

The purpose of geochemical surveys changes with scale. Regional surveys identify areas where mineral deposits are most likely to occur, whereas intermediate surveys identify and prioritize specific targets. At detailed scales specific deposit models may be applied and deposits delineated.The interpretation of regional geochemical surveys must take into account scale-dependent difference in the nature and objectives of this type of survey. Overinterpretation of regional data should be resisted, as should recommendations to restrict intermediate or detailed follow-up surveys to the search for specific deposit types or to a too limited suite of elements. Regional surveys identify metallogenic provinces within which a variety of deposit types and metals are most likely to be found. At intermediate scale, these regional provinces often dissipate into discrete clusters of anomalous areas. At detailed scale, individual anomalous areas reflect local conditions of mineralization and may seem unrelated to each other. Four examples from arid environments illustrate the dramatic change in patterns of anomalies between regional and more detailed surveys.On the Arabian Shield, a broad regional anomaly reflects the distribution of highly differentiated anorogenic granites. A particularly prominent part of the regional anomaly includes, in addition to the usual elements related to the granites, the assemblage of Mo, W and Sn. Initial interpretation suggested potential for granite-related, stockwork Mo deposits. Detailed work identified three separate sources for the anomaly: a metal-rich granite, a silicified and stockwork-veined area with scheelite and molybdenite, and scheelite/powellite concentrations in skarn deposits adjacent to a ring-dike complex.Regional geochemical, geophysical and remote-sensing data in the Sonoran Desert, Mexico, define a series of linear features interpreted to reflect fundamental, northeast-trending fractures in the crust that served as the prime conduits for mineralizing fluids. At a larger scale, the linear, northeast-trending anomalies can be shown to result from a series of discrete mineralized systems with different ages and mineral assemblages. The linear pattern of anomalies disintegrates.A regional geochemical survey in the Sonoran Desert in southwestern Arizona displays a cluster of samples anomalous in Pb, Mo, Bi and W. In detail, the original regional anomaly separates into four discrete anomalous areas, each with its own distinctive suite of elements, geographic distribution and age of mineralization.A prominent regional gold anomaly in the Gobi Desert, Xinjiang, Peoples Republic of China, extends southeastward for 30 km from known lode gold deposits. Because the anomaly cuts both lithologic units and the structural grain, and because it parallels the prevailing direction of high-velocity winds, it was originally attributed to eolian dispersion. In detail, the regional anomaly consists of several east-west-trending anomalies, parallel to local lithology and structure that most likely reflect independent sources of lode gold. The regional anomaly results from smoothing of an en-echelon set of local anomalies.These examples emphasize that interpretation of regional anomalies must be tempered to consider regional-sized geologic features. Attempts to overinterpret anomalies by assigning deposit-scale attributes to regional anomalies can lead to confusion and incorrect interpretations. Potential targets that can be readily resolved only at intermediate or detailed scales of study may be overlooked.     

Unraveling multiple provenance areas using sandstone petrofacies and geochemistry: An example in the southern flank of the Golfo San Jorge Basin (Patagonia,Argentina)

The aim of this paper is to study the provenance of Late Cretaceous sandstones deposited along the south flank of the Golfo San Jorge Basin. For this purpose, detrital modes of three hundred thirty-seven sandstone samples collected in the Mina del Carmen, Bajo Barreal, and Cañadón Seco Formations were studied in ten oil fields. According to the modal composition of the sandstones, six petrofacies were defined allowing the identification of not only principal, but also secondary provenance areas. The QVM and VQM petrofacies are more than 20% metamorphic, sedimentary, and polycrystalline quartz clasts (Lm + Ls + Qpg > 20%), evidencing a secondary signal of basement supply masked by a predominant volcanic provenance. The petrofacies VP and VF are characterized by Lm + Ls + Qpg <20% and more than 20% total feldspar (Pm + Om >20%.), which indicate a supply of sediment from volcanic terrains and scarce derivation of materials from basement rocks. Based on the plagioclase/k-feldspar ratio, the VF petrofacies is interpreted to be dominated by the supply of sand grains from the Andean volcanic-arc, while VP is supposed have originated through the erosion of intermediate volcanic rock outcroppings in the Macizo del Deseado. Finally, both the VQ and QV petrofacies show Lm + Ls + Qpg <20% and Pm + Om<20%, indicating a provenance of volcanic areas coupled with minor contributions from basement rocks. During the Late Cretaceous, the Golfo San Jorge Basin underwent a sag phase that was characterized by very scarce volcanism and tectonic activity. Although these conditions did not favor defined patterns in the vertical stacking of petrofacies, the sandstones exhibit remarkable changes in their regional distribution, which were determined by the paleogeography of the basin and differences in basement composition within the source areas. Finally, a paleogeographic model for sediment circulation in the basin is proposed. This model recognizes the main fluvial dispersal trends that flowed northwest to southeast and transported large amounts of volcanic clasts (associated with petrofacies VF-VQ). To the extent that rivers flowed eastward, a secondary supply from the Precambrian basement, which were composed of low-to high-grade metamorphic rocks, was also important (petrofacies association VQM and QVM). The southwestern area of the basin is dominated by VP petrofacies that record the supply of plagioclase-rich volcanic clasts. This petrofacies likely corresponds to the erosion of Jurassic volcanic units that crop out in the Macizo del Deseado.     

The effect of fluid composition on the behavior of well cemented, quartz-rich sandstone during faulting

Previous studies [O'Kane, A., Onasch, C.M., Farver, J., 2007. The role of fluids in low-temperature, fault-related deformation of quartz arenite. Journal of Structural Geology 29, 819--836; Cook, J., Dunne, W.M., Onasch, C.M., 2006. Development of a dilatant damage zone along a thrust relay in a low-porosity quartz arenite, Journal of Structural Geology 28, 776–792] found that quartz arenite within two fault zones in the Appalachian foreland thrust belt displays very different structural styles and histories despite deforming at similar pressures and temperatures during the Alleghanian orogeny. A comparison of the grain-scale deformation and fluid histories using transmitted and cathodoluminescence microscopy and fluid inclusion microthermometry, shows that fluid composition was a controlling factor for causing these differences. The Cove fault zone deformed in the presence of aqueous fluids, first a CaCl₂ brine and then an iron-rich fluid. The precipitation of quartz cement from the brine kept pace with brittle deformation, maintaining overall rock cohesion in the fault zone. The introduction of iron-rich fluids caused a switch from precipitation to dissolution of quartz, along with precipitation of goethite. In a damage zone along a backthrust in the Cave Mountain anticline, early deformation occurred in the presence of an aqueous fluid from which quartz was precipitated. The latest deformation, however, occurred in the presence of a methane-rich fluid, which inhibited the precipitation of quartz cement producing porous breccias and open fractures despite deformation at 6 km depth. Fluid composition not only affected cementation in the fault zones, but also the selection of grain-scale deformation mechanisms. Therefore, it is a controlling factor in determining the behavior and strength of these fault zones.     

温度和应力耦合作用下砂岩破坏的细观试验研究

针对矿产资源深部开采以及核废料处置等重大工程实际需求,对温度-应力耦合作用下岩石变形、强度的理论和试验进行研究具有十分重要的意义。通过试验研究了不同温度影响下砂岩的变形破坏特性,发现对于小尺度下的砂岩试件,当温度从室温升到150 ℃,抗拉强度有所升高;而温度由150 ℃升高到300 ℃,抗拉强度又有所下降,这是以往研究中没有观察到的现象,详细分析了其原因。并通过比较宏观断口位置图和名义应力-应变曲线,认为温度对砂岩的局部变形破坏机制有明显的影响。随着温度升高,断裂机制呈现脆性机制向延性机制转变的趋势。     

筑坝粗粒料力学特性的缩尺效应研究

针对筑坝粗粒材料缩尺效应问题,统计分析三板溪、水布垭等大坝填筑料的级配特征,认为以Talbot曲线为原级配可作为高土石坝填筑料的“平均级配”,并将此原级配按现今粗粒料试验制样时最为常用的“混合法”进行缩尺,配制了最大粒径 为20～180 mm的试样。利用PFC2D软件,对各缩尺级配进行了多组、多种数值试验,揭示了各缩尺级配试样干密度极值、初始弹性模量及体积模量等关键物理量与各级配最大粒径的关系。结果表明：缩尺关系与密实度控制标准相关,在同一相对密度条件下各缩尺比试样力学参量为其最大粒径的单调函数,经推求可得原级配具备室内试验级配1.5～1.6倍的抗变形能力;而在同一干密度条件下,力学参量与各最大粒径呈先减小再增加的非单调关系。最后基于细观力学理论对造成缩尺效应的机制进行了解译。利用PFC2D数值试验从一定程度上拓展了仅靠实际三轴试验来研究粗粒料缩尺效应的粒径和思路。     

The effects of source lithology, transport, deposition and sampling scale on the composition of southern California sand

The Transverse Ranges of southern California represent an uplifted and variably dissected Mesozoic magmatic arc, and Mesozoic to Holocene sedimentary and volcanic strata deposited in convergent and transform tectonic settings. Modern sand within part of the Western Transverse Ranges represents: first-order sampling scale of the Santa Monica and the San Gabriel Mountains; second-order sampling scale of the Santa Clara River draining both mountain ranges; and third-order sampling scale of the beach system between the mouth of the Santa Clara River and the eastern Santa Monica Mountains, and turbidite sand of the Hueneme-Mugu submarine fan. Source lithology includes plutonic and metamorphic rocks of the San Gabriel Mountains, and sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Santa Monica Mountains. First-order sands have large compositional variability. Sand from local coastal drainage of the Santa Monica Mountains ranges from basaltic feldspatholithic to quartzofeldspathic. Sand of the San Gabriel Mountains local drainages has three distinct petrofacies, ranging from metamorphiclastic feldspatholithic to mixed metamorphi/plutoniclastic and plutoniclastic quartzofeldspathic. Second-order sand is represented by the main channel of the Santa Clara River; the sand has an abrupt downstream compositional change, from feldspathic to quartzofeldspathic. Third-order sand (beaches and deep-sea turbidite samples) of the Santa Monica Basin is quartzofeldspathic. Beach sand is more quartz-rich than is Santa Clara river sand, whereas turbidite sand is more feldspar-rich than is beach sand. Deep-sea sand has intermediate composition with respect to second-order samples of the Santa Clara River and third-order samples of the beach system, suggesting that (1) the Santa Clara River is the main source of sediments to the marine environment; and (2) local entry points from canyons located near local drainages may generate turbidity currents during exceptional flood conditions. Petrologic data of modern sand of the study area are highly variable at first- and second-order scale, whereas third-order sand is homogenized. The homogenized composition of deep-marine sand is similar to the composition of most ancient sandstone derived primarily from the Mesozoic dissected magmatic arc of southern California. This study of the Western Transverse Ranges illustrates the effects of source lithology, transport, depositional environment, and sampling scale on sand composition of a complex system, which provides insights regarding actualistic petrofacies models.     

The sandstone fantasy of Petra

The rose-red city half as old as time is an incredible series of monuments carved out of Cambrian sandstone, which offers more than a little geological interest. Both the site of Petra and its approach canyons are tightly controlled by the geology, and the sandstone itself is mineralized and coloured on a surprising scale.     

单轴压缩下绿砂岩长期强度的尺寸效应研究

岩石的蠕变特性是影响岩体工程稳定性的重要因素,而岩石的长期强度是确定岩体工程长期稳定的一个重要指标。由于岩石材料的非均质性,其长期强度具有明显的尺寸效应。为了研究岩石长期强度的尺寸效应,首先,在幂函数模型基础上,基于损伤力学理论,建立了能够描述岩石蠕变全过程的非线性蠕变损伤模型;然后,把运用该模型计算得到的单轴压缩蠕变数值模拟结果与室内单轴压缩蠕变试验结果进行对比,验证了模型的正确性;最后,采用所提出的模型对7个不同尺寸的岩样进行了单轴压缩蠕变数值模拟,并对岩石长期强度尺寸效应进行了分析。数值模拟结果表明：随着试样尺寸的逐渐增大,岩石长期强度值逐渐减小,当试样尺寸增大到一定程度时,岩石长期强度稳定在一个特定值附近。     

泄洪雾化降雨模型相似性探讨

泄洪雾化影响的研究和预测目前仍然以大比尺模型试验研究为主,但模型缩尺效应是制约这一方法准确预报泄洪雾化影响范围及程度的关键因素。根据乌江渡水电站泄洪雾化原型观测资料,通过系列模型试验研究,分析了水流Re和We数对泄洪雾化降雨强度的影响,对泄洪雾化雨强的模型试验值与原型观测结果之间的相似关系进行了探索,研究了雾化降雨影响区域的不同比尺模型试验测试结果之间的几何相似性。     

长期注水对致密砂岩油藏岩石力学性质影响机制研究

注水开发是致密砂岩油藏增产的重要手段,长时间注水会改变地层岩石物理力学性质,影响油井产量。为探究长时间注水对地层岩石物理力学性质影响的微观机制,选取同一储层已注水15a及尚未注水岩芯进行对比试验分析。通过试验得到了注水前后地层岩石在弹性力学参数、矿物成分、微观孔隙结构等方面的差异。长时间注水后,岩石矿物成分及内部结构发生变化,主要表现为黏土矿物及方解石含量降低,岩石颗粒间填充物及胶结物大量减少,中小孔隙发育为大孔隙,孔隙度增大,进而导致致密砂岩力学性质弱化,变形能力增大。     

温度和有效应力对砂岩渗透性影响的试验研究

为探讨温度和有效应力对渗透性的影响,在不同温度水平和不同有效应力水平下进行了砂岩的渗透率试验。根据试验结果,初步分析了温度和有效应力对砂岩渗透率及其水力传导系数的影响。试验结果表明,砂岩的渗透率及其水力传导系数都是温度和有效应力的函数:在温度一定的条件下,砂岩的渗透率和水力传导系数均随有效应力的增加而呈负指数规律减小;在有效应力一定的条件下,砂岩的渗透率随温度的升高而减小,但水力传导系数与温度之间的关系函数并非单调函数。因此,在工程实践中不考虑温度和有效应力对岩石 (体)渗透性的影响是不合适的。     

Hyperfiltration of nickel sulphate solutions through silty sandstone and its effect on hydraulic conductivity

Hyperfiltration (reverse osmosis) and subsequent precipitation of minerals from the hyperfiltrated solution are processes that potentially decrease the hydraulic conductivity of porous media. These processes were demonstrated by hyperfiltrating NiSO₄ solutions through fine-grained sandstone. The mineral precipitates occur in very small (mm sized) layers at the high-pressure side of the samples where they create zones of lowered hydraulic conductivity (2–3 orders of magnitude lower than initial). The total amount of precipitates is very small compared to the dissolved mass which was passed through the membrane. Hyperfiltration-induced precipitates and the resulting lowering of hydraulic conductivities were observed at solute saturations as low as 10%. Nevertheless, at saturations higher than 50% the conductivity reduction strongly increased. Full reversibility of the hydraulic conductivity reduction by extensive re-flushing with water was only obtained at low initial solute saturations (10%). This indicates that precipitated minerals in many pores are susceptible only to very slow, diffusion-controlled re-dissolution.     

不同初始卸荷水平对深埋砂岩力学特性影响规律试验研究

深部岩石开挖等工况诱发的不同初始卸荷水平对其力学特征影响明显,基于对砂岩进行常规三轴压缩试验和不同初始卸荷水平的三轴卸荷试验,研究了高应力加、卸荷条件下砂岩的强度、变形及扩容特征。研究发现:在同一初始围压条件下,初始卸荷水平越高,围压降低的越小,岩样达到破坏所经历的卸围压过程越短。随着初始围压的增大,不同卸荷水平下的统一围压降参数η基本是增加的,表明在高应力状态岩样需要更大的围压卸荷量才会破坏。随初始卸荷水平的提高,凝聚力c呈指数关系增长,内摩擦角φ呈多项式关系减小。卸围压的两个阶段,侧向应变增量Δε_3都比轴向应变增量Δε_1大,表现为明显的侧向扩容。初始卸荷水平越低,其最大剪胀角越大,扩容效应越明显。扩容指标I_d与围压呈幂函数型关系,与初始卸荷水平呈二次函数关系。基于对试验数据的拟合,对不同初始卸荷水平作用的砂岩的摩尔-库仑准则表达式进行了修正。