The Fall of Threatening Rock: A Geomorphology Exercise Adaptation

Abstract

The Threatening Rock mass wasting event at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, in 1941 introduces students to a well-documented geomorphology case study. Based on data from Schumm and Chorley (1964), students examine the event using rock movement measurements and weather data, undertaking the same analysis tasks as the original investigators. Students observe patterns of movement related to precipitation and temperature, and use regression to estimate the time of initial movement. Specific exercise questions guide students to logical conclusions regarding geomorphic processes and environmental influences. The exercise exemplifies geomorphic investigation from both a process and historic perspective.     

Stochastic modeling of daily precipitation in China

1IntroductionWeather Generator (WG) is a stochastic model that can be used to simulate daily weather based on parameters determined by historic records. Precipitation, maximum temperature, minimum temperature, radiation and more can all be simulated by WG. Recently WG has gained renewed attention and has been extensively applied in studying impacts of climate change on a variety of systems including ecosystem and risk assessment. Specifically, it has been used in the following ways. 1) WG …     

Stochastic modeling of daily precipitation in China

A stochastic model for daily precipitation simulation in China was developed based on the framework of a 'Richardson-type' weather generator that is an important tool in studying impacts of weather/climate on a variety of systems including ecosystem and risk assessment. The purpose of this work is to develop a weather generator for applications in China. The focus is on precipitation simulation since determination of other weather variables such as temperature is dependent on precipitation simulation. A framework of first order Markov Chain with Gamma Distribution for daily precipitation is adopted in this work. Based on this framework, four parameters of precipitation simulation for each month at 672 stations all over China were determined using daily precipitation data from 1961 to 2000. Compared with previous works, our estimation for the parameters was made for more stations and longer observations, which makes the weather generator more applicable and reliable. Spatial distributions of the four parameters are analyzed in a regional climate context. The seasonal variations of these parameters at five stations representing regional differences are discussed. Based on the estimated monthly parameters at 672 stations, daily precipitations for any period can be simulated. A 30-year simulation was made and compared with observations during 1971-2000 in terms of annual and monthly statistics. The results are satisfactory, which demonstrates the usefulness of the weather generator.     

中国天气发生器的降水模拟

A stochastic model for daily precipitation simulation in China was developed based on the framework of a ‘Richardson-type‘ weather generator that is an important tool in studying impacts of weather/climate on a variety of systems including ecosystem and risk assessment. The purpose of this work is to develop a weather generator for applications in China. The focus is on precipitation simulation since determination of other weather variables such as temperature is dependent on precipitation simulation. A framework of first order Markov Chain with Gamma Distribution for daily precipitation is adopted in this work. Based on this framework, four parameters of precipitation simulation for each month at 672 stations all over China were determined using daily precipitation data from 1961 to 2000. Compared with previous works, our estimation for the parameters was made for more stations and longer observations, which makes the weather generator more applicable and reliable. Spatial distributions of the four parameters are analyzed in a regional climate context. The seasonal variations of these parameters at five stations representing regional differences are discussed.Based on the estimated monthly parameters at 672 stations, daily precipitations for any period can be simulated. A 30-year simulation was made and compared with observations during 1971-2000 in terms of annual and monthly statistics. The results are satisfactory, which demonstrates the usefulness of the weather generator.     

中国天气发生器的降水模拟

天气发生器是气候影响评价研究的重要工具,在气候变化、地球生态系统及极端气候事件发生的风险分析等方面有着广泛的应用。为了建立一个适用于中国广大地区的天气发生器,需要对各种模拟模型及其参数的估计进行深入的研究。其中降水的模拟及其参数的估计是关键,因为气温、辐射等其他气候要素的模拟依赖于降水的发生。本文重点介绍了常用的随机降水模拟模型：两状态一阶马尔科夫链和两参数GAMMA分布。根据中国672个气象站点1961~2000年的逐日降水资料,计算了降水转移概率P (WD)、P (WW) 及GAMMA分布参数ALPHA和BETA,并分析了4个参数在中国各地的空间分布特征与不同地区各参数的季节分布特征。最后根据各地不同月份计算的四个降水模拟参数对中国各地的逐日降水进行模拟,并利用1971~2000年的实测数据对30年模拟结果在统计意义上进行了检验,模拟结果较好。     

中国西北地区夏季降水分区客观预报

本文在降水分区的基础上,对西北地区夏季降水进行预报。利用2007—2010年的6—8月T639资料和相应时段的实况资料,通过概率回归降水等级方案进行建模,对2011年6—8月进行了试报。结果表明:与单站建模预报相比,分区建模降水预报TS评分在各时效、各量级上均有提高,并且在空报和漏报上有较大减少,特别是中雨预报改善明显。分区建模比单站建模所选因子更丰富,利用了模式产品的有用信息,因此预报效果更好。分区建模降水预报与模式直接输出降水预报的对比分析表明:分区建模的降水预报效果优于模式直接输出降水预报,尤其小雨预报效果显著,中雨和大雨36 h和60 h预报的空报现象明显减少。     

塔里木河流域径流变化趋势及其对气候变化的响应

This paper has studied the change of streamflow and the impact of climatic variability conditions on regional hydrological cycle in the headwater of the Tarim River Basin. This study investigates possible causes of observed trends in streamflow in an environment which is highly variable in terms of atmospheric conditions, and where snow and ice melt play an important role in the natural hydrological regime. The discharge trends of three head streams have a significant increase trend from 1957 to 2002 with the Mann-Kendall test. Complex time-frequency distributions in the streamflow regime are demonstrated especially by Morlet wavelet analysis over 40 years. The purpose is to ascertain the nature of climatic factors spatial and temporal distribution, involved the use of EOF （Empirical Orthogonal Function） to compare the dominant temperature, precipitation and evaporation patterns from normally climatic records over the Tarim＇s headwater basin. It shows that the first principal component was dominated since the 1990s for temperature and precipitation, which identifies the significant ascending trend of spatial and temporal pattern characteristics under the condition of the global warming. An exponential correlation is highlighted between surface air temperature and mean river discharge monthly, so the regional runoff increases by 10%-16% when surface air temperature rises by 1 ℃. Results suggest that headwater basins are the most vulnerable environments from the point of view of climate change, because their watershed properties promote runoff feeding by glacier and snow melt water and their fundamental vulnerability to temperature changes affects rainfall, snowfall, and glacier and ice melt.     

青海共和盆地现代气候特征及其变化趋势

通过对青海共和盆地内共和、贵南、河卡和沙珠玉等台站近30年气象资料的初步分析,认为该区现代气候具有气温较低、冷热剧变;降水量少,变率大;风力大、频率高;霜期长、无绝对无霜期等四个特征。在气候区划上应属青藏高原温带内的半干旱干草原和干旱荒漠气候区。根据区内温度、降水的多年变化以及温度高、降水多的组合类型出现的机率最少这个事实,提出到本世纪末、下世纪初,如果温度、降水的自然变化趋势不出现大的波动,则随着人类活动的增温效应的出现,本区的气侯可能更为干旱。     

Some Aspects of Winter Climatology and the Energy Crisis

Abstract

The potentially severe strain that subnormal winter temperatures would impose upon reduced heating fuel supplies prompted publication of a long-range, national, winter weather forecast in November 1973. However, limitation of the art of weather forecasting that stem ultimately from the complex episodic nature of weather behavior diminish the reliability of this outlook. In spite of the complexity encountered along the way, a journey into weather records of the past does reveal some observations about weather activity that are useful in assessing winter temperature prospects. These observations include the characteristic nonuniformity of weather behavior, the existence of long-range and seasonal climatic trends, and the thermal effects of early-season establishment of a heavy snow cover.     

Geographic Graphics

Abstract

The diagrammatic climate key presented here was developed in an attempt to simplify the teaching of climate classification at the secondary and college levels. The chart emphasizes four critical temperatures involved in the Koppen classification, and shows their relationships to the various climate types. It is hoped that use of this key will give students a better understanding of the role of critical temperatures such as 64.4° or 71.6°, symbols such as Aw or BSk, and the overall scheme of climate classification. The chart has been developed for the Köppen climatic classification as modified by Ackerman and Van Royen and popularized by Trewartha.¹ Because the modified Koppen system is widely used and accepted, that system—along with Fahrenheit temperatures—will be utilized in the following discussion. Figure 1 represents the working skeleton, which may be drawn upon the chalkboard, presented by use of transparent overlay, or handed out on individual laboratory exercise sheets.     

东北气候和生态过渡区近50年来降水和温度概率分布特征变化

文章从中国160个站的观测资料中选取位于东北气候和生态过渡区内9个测站的冬、夏季降水和温度资料,分析该地区近50年来冬夏季降水和温度的年际变化及其概率分布特征,结果表明,东北气候和生态过渡区的冬夏季降水和温度有明显的年代际变化特征,在不同的年代际变化阶段,降水和温度的总体概率分布特征差异较大,这种概率分布形式的差异与高温、干旱等极端天气气候事件的频繁发生具有密切关系。20世纪80年代以来降水处于平均值减小的总体分布中,温度则处于平均值增加的总体分布中,因此该地区冬季发生暖冬和少雨(雪)的机会增大,夏季出现严重干旱和高温的可能性增大。     

云南纵向岭谷地区气候变化对河流径流量的影响

以云南纵向岭谷地区历年逐月径流量观测数据和云南的逐月雨量和气温场观测数据为基础,应用统计分析和小波变换的分析方法,研究了云南纵向岭谷作用下的年际气候变化及其对国际河流年径流量变化的影响。结论为：由于云南纵向岭谷区的特殊下垫面作用,云南月降水量场变化与云南国际河流月径流量变化的高相关区中心的纬度差异不显著,但经度差异却十分显著;澜沧江气候区的年降水量明显大于其东部的李仙江和元江气候区的年降水量,其年降水量的偏差则明显小于它们;元江气候区的年平均气温明显低于其西部的李仙江和澜沧江气候区的年平均气温,其年平均气温的偏差也明显小于它们;与云南纵向岭谷作用下的年降水量变化特征相对应,元江的年径流量偏差也明显大于其西部的李仙江和澜沧江的年径流量偏差;云南纵向岭谷对西南季风的阻隔作用较大,而对东北季风的阻隔作用相对较小;云南纵向岭谷作用下的年降水量变化主要表现在较小的时间尺度上,随着时间尺度的增大其作用变小;云南纵向岭谷对于年气温变化的作用比年降水量变化的作用要小;近几年来,各气候区的年降水量变化的主要特征是偏多趋势,受其影响,云南国际河流的年径流量变化也主要表现为偏大趋势;近十几年来,各气候区的年气温变化的主要特征是显著偏高。     

近20 a来海南岛西部土地沙漠化与气候变化关联度研究

 根据生态基准面理论制定了海南岛西部沙漠化土地分级体系,运用遥感、野外调查和数理统计等方法,研究了海南岛西部近20 a来沙漠化时空变化及其与气候变化的关系。近20 a来,海南岛西部土地沙漠化总体缩小、局部反复,年均缩小6.23 km2,沙漠化程度明显降低,降级率为、{-44.84％、};气候呈增温增湿变化,出现多次异常年份。对近20 a来气候变化与沙漠化的因子分析和关联度分析表明, 人为活动的强度加大是海南岛西部沙漠化的主导作用,气候因子与沙漠化的关联序为:年均湿度>年均气温>大风日数>年均风速>年均降水>蒸发量,增温增湿的气候变化趋势对沙漠化逆转具有促进作用。     

过去45年中国干湿气候区域变化特征

利用中国1960-2004年降水、平均气温、风速和相对湿度等资料,分别采用降水指数和干湿分类函数作为干湿区域的划分标准,将中国划分成三个干湿等级的区域:干旱区、半干旱区和湿润区。结果发现无论以哪种指数作为衡量干湿的标准,我国过去45年的干旱总面积,即干旱区面积和半干旱区面积之和,均为扩大趋势,湿润面积则为减小趋势,这种情况在近十年表现得尤为显著。而半干旱区面积在分析时段变化的幅度最大,是干湿变化的敏感区。但两种结果之间也存在不同:降水指数的结果表明干旱区和湿润区的面积减小,半干旱区的面积增大;而干湿分类函数得到的各个干湿区域的面积则表明干旱区的增大,半干旱区和湿润区的减小。从定量的角度讲,干湿分类函数估算的干旱区面积的45年平均值比降水指数估算的干旱区面积的45年平均值约大15%,其估算的半干旱面积的45年平均值比降水指数的结果约小9%,而两者湿润区面积的45年平均值相差约6%。最后给出了仅分析降水指数就能反映干湿状况的地区和必须分析干湿分类函数才能确定干湿状况的区域。     

黑河流域张掖市近38 a以来气候变化特征分析

 目前黑河流域气候变化研究多集中于流域系统气候变化与区域水资源变化之间的关系、区域沙漠化、沙尘暴发生的气候动因等研究方面，而对人类活动强度大、活动最为密集的流域绿洲区域张掖市气候变化所作研究较少。通过对张掖市六县（区）6个气象观测站近38 a以来的逐月平均气温、降水、大风频率资料的系统分析，认为张掖市近38 a来气温升高幅度较之全国其他区域更为明显。多年降水变化相对不大，但冬春两季降水出现缓慢增加的趋势，大风天气与沙尘暴发生频数近38 a来出现了明显的下降趋势，这与区域气温升高及冬春两季易发生沙尘暴的期间降水增加有明显的相关性。同时人类对干旱区内陆河流域绿洲开发的加深也一定程度上对这种生态环境敏感地区的气候产生影响。     

Uncertainties in the SNOWPACK multilayer snow model for a Canadian avalanche context: sensitivity to climatic forcing data

Abstract

As interest in outdoor activities in remote areas is increasing, there is a strong need for improved avalanche forecasting at the regional scale. Due to important logistical and safety matters, avalanche terrain measurements (avalanche observations, snowpack profiles, and stability tests) are not always possible for practitioners/forecasters. An interesting alternative would be to analyze the snowpack without these challenges by using snow model outputs. The SNOWPACK model is currently used operationally for avalanche forecasting and research in the Swiss Alps. Thus, this paper presents a summary of analyses that have been conducted to assess the potential of using the SNOWPACK model driven with both in-situ and forecasted meteorological data in three different Canadian climate and geomorphological contexts. A comparison of meteorological data from in-situ and predicted datasets for two winters shows that the GEMLAM weather model is the most accurate for the three climatic contexts of this project, but also showed a bias proportional to precipitation intensity/rate. Snow simulations forced with GEMLAM are the closest to field measurements. Finally, predictions of persistent weak layers have been validated using the InfoEx platform from Avalanche Canada. Crust and surface hoar formation dates agree with the information reported in InfoEx.     

2000-2012年祁连山植被覆盖变化及其与气候因子的相关性

研究祁连山地区植被覆盖变化及其与气候因子的响应关系对这一地区土地利用总体特征以及对区域及全球气候和环境变化都将产生深远的意义。利用2000-2012年美国国家航空航天局提供的MODIS NDVI数据并结合相应的气候资料,通过对逐像元信息的提取和分析,运用均值法、斜率分析法、相关分析法,研究了2000-2012年不同季节祁连山植被覆盖的时空变化及其与气候因子的相关性。结果表明:13 a来祁连山植被覆盖整体上呈增加趋势,其中春季植被改善最为明显,秋季次之;植被覆盖变化在不同季节都存在明显的空间差异;不同季节植被与气温、降水的时滞效应不尽相同;祁连山春季大部分地区NDVI与气温呈显著正相关,夏季NDVI与降水呈显著正相关,秋、冬季NDVI与降水、气温的相关性不明显。     

1961-2011年山东气候资源及气候生产力时空变化特征

基于山东省21个气象站1961-2011年的气象资料,利用线性趋势、IDW空间插值、Mann-Kendall检验、Fisher最优分割等方法分析了气温和降水的时空变化特征;在此基础上采用Thornthwaite Memorial模型对植被气候生产力的时空演变进行了研究,并探讨了气候生产力对气温和降水的敏感性。结果表明:近51年来山东省普遍增温,倾向率为0.359℃/10a,中部地区升温明显;年降水量在剧烈波动中略呈下降趋势,20世纪80年代降水量的变率较大,山东北部、东部、东南部降水量减少幅度较大。近51年来气候生产力存在较明显波动,总体呈增加趋势,但递增速度不显著,1981-1989年气候生产力最低,2003-2011年达到最高水平;气候生产力由北向南,由西向东逐渐增加,山东西南部气候生产力增加较多。“暖湿型”气候对作物气候生产力有利,气候变暖有利于气候生产力的提高,但降水量少是限制气候生产力的主要因素。     

An Investigation of the Influence of Cyclonic Airstreams on Midwestern Snowfall

Although previous climatological studies have investigated the relationship between cyclone frequency and trajectory and regional weather, analyses of structural airflow features and precipitation have been confined to meteorological case studies. In the following paper, the influence of Colorado cyclone airstreams on Midwestern snowfall is investigated using isentropic streamline maps for five cold season months. Results indicate that Colorado cyclones account for a minor percentage of Midwestern snowfall events and amounts. When snowfall is induced by Colorado cyclogenesis, diffluence and instability in the cold sector portions of the cyclone are the dominant lifting mechanisms.