The Elementary Social Studies: Sense and Nonsense in Integration

Abstract

The ultimate goal of all geographic education is to have our students think geographically for life. To this end, the five geographic skills sets allow teachers to use the inquiry approach to more accurately observe whether or not geographic thinking is actually taking place. As essential components of these geographic skills, fieldwork, journaling, and stories based on the field experience have proven to be effective tools of inquiry. This article demonstrates how a journal, kept by the author while on an advanced alliance summer institute to Russia in 1996, was used to write an original short story based on the author's fieldwork there. The author's experiences model the five geographic skills sets in developing lesson plans for the original short story, The Dragon and the Anchor. These activities allow the students to sharpen their geographic skills and develop a sense of place by studying the changes that have occurred in Russia since the fall of communism in 1991.     

World Patterns of Geographic Literacy Based on Sketch Map Quality

This paper discusses world patterns of geographic literacy and illiteracy based on the quality of sketch maps of the world drawn by university students in first-year geography classes. The study, sponsored by the International Geographical Union and funded by the National Geographic Society, contains 3,568 sketch maps of the world collected from 75 sites in 52 countries. For the purposes of this paper, geographic literacy is equated with the number of nations and continents included on the sketch maps. The individual map scores are aggregated to determine the average number of items per map for each site and nation. Our set of maps provides a baseline of world variations in geographic literacy just prior to the end of the Cold War. The sketch map techniques can be used to monitor changes in geographic literacy.     

Geographical Notes

Abstract

This article describes the benefits of combining field-based learning within the context of a competitive setting in the geography curriculum. Findings and data are presented based on experiences gathered from teaching an upper-level university geography course that combined geographic techniques and theory into a game of capture-the-flag. Students analyzed a variety of geospatial data sources, using ArcMap Geographic Information System software, to prepare a series of maps for the game. Students reported a first-time understanding of many geographic skills that were previously ambiguous to them when the material was presented in a different format, such as lectures and labs.     

Fifteen Year Follow-Up Geography Skills Test Administered in Indiana, 1987 and 2002

Abstract

After fifteen years of geographic education efforts, a baseline geography skills test was repeated in Indiana. In 2002, 2,278 students in college freshman geography courses were tested with a revision of the National Council for Geographic Education Competency-Based Geography Test, Secondary Level Form II. The test measured geographic ability in map skills, place name location, physical geography, and human geography. As in 1987, the 2002 test gathered personal information from each student on age, gender, travel experience, and prior geographic education. Test scores were lower by two percent in 2002. Travel and lifetime experience are again the best teachers of geography as opposed to high school geography course work. Significant performance differences persist between gender and ethnic groups. Arts and science students perform significantly higher than students from education, business, and other schools. Test results underscore the need to emphasize more intentional classroom focus on state standards and preparation of classroom teachers.     

理解地理“耦合”实现地理“集成”

“耦合”作为物理学的经典概念,为许多学科提供了一套阐述多主体相互作用的思路和方法。“集成”不是来自特定学科,但因其高度的概括能力被广泛应用于自然和人文科学领域。地球科学是应用这两个概念最多的学科之一。地理学作为自然与人文交叉学科,具有区域性、综合性和复杂性特征。在使用耦合概念时,不同地理分支具有不同的理解,为此,地理学者有必要明确界定不同学科、不同情景下耦合概念的内涵,从而更准确地探索陆地表层格局、过程和机制。首先,从地理要素耦合、地理空间耦合、地理界面耦合、地理空间尺度耦合、地理关系耦合、地理耦合解译六个方面,对地理耦合的内涵进行全面解析和界定,并给出了相应的研究实践案例。其次,从地理学的视角认识理解集成,并以“黑河流域生态—水文集成研究”重大研究计划的地理实践为例,介绍实现地理集成的基本路径。最后,提出理解地理“耦合”与实现地理“集成”之间的联系。     

A Pedagogic Framework to Link GIS to the Intellectual Core of Geography

Abstract

This paper aims to develop a new pedagogic framework for teaching GIS at the college and university level using Berry's geographic matrix. By synthesizing different schools of thought, this paper argues that GIS education essentially involves two aspects—how to teach about GIS and how to teach with GIS. Berry's geographic matrix can be used to tie these dual aspects of GIS education together neatly. As an abstract representation of geographical phenomena, the geographic matrix embeds all three entities of GIS—location, attribute, time—and thus can help GIS instructors teach about GIS. As a synthesis of geographical approaches, the geographic matrix can assist GIS instructors teach with GIS. This paper demonstrates that GIS is actually an implementation of Berry's geographic matrix. Furthermore, the 10 approaches to geographical analysis, originally proposed by Berry for the geographic matrix, can be executed routinely in a GIS environment. By incorporating Berry's geographic matrix into GIS education, teachers can enable students to surpass technical issues and to appreciate the conceptual and functional linkages between GIS and geography's intellectual core.     

A Proposal for Assessment in Geography Education

Abstract

The geographic skills, as outlined in Geography for Life, provide an avenue for assessing students' work in geography. If used across the scope and sequence of the curriculum, a common scoring guide based on these skills offers opportunities for students to demonstrate their ability to use inquiry approaches to study geography and to improve those abilities over time and over different geographic questions. If used consistently, a geographic skills scoring guide can also help to communicate to a broader audience of parents, administration, and the public as to what the discipline of geography encompasses.     

The Trade and Industries of Western South America

Abstract

This research was based on an instructional module developed and used to investigate whether GIS can be used to enhance fourth grade students' geographic knowledge and map skills. Another goal was to identify challenges the teachers and the students face using GIS.

Findings from the study suggest that using GIS in the classroom helps students improve their geographic knowledge and maps skills. In addition, this study found that the students' geographic content knowledge tended to improve gradually and the knowledge transferred to the subsequent lessons, while certain map skills tended to develop in a more specific manner.     

上海市风险投资企业的空间分布与“技术—资本”地理邻近性

风险投资企业与“标的”产业、金融行业存在紧密关联,表现为“技术—资本”的耦合性联系。该特征如何映射在空间上,尤其是经济密度较高的城市内部空间,对于理解区位的重要性及其空间尺度一致性具有启示。以上海市街区为基本研究单元,选取2005年和2015年两个时间截面,运用核密度估计、时序稳定性“热点”和空间Tobit模型分析方法,从中外资比较视角探讨风险投资企业的空间分布与“技术—资本”地理邻近性。研究表明：① 中外资企业分别呈现单中心和多中心集聚格局,以及“面域扩散”和“点域扩散”趋势,并均表现出邻近“技术”与“资本”的分布特征;② 风险投资企业的“资本”地理邻近性超越“技术”地理邻近性,并在“技术”地理邻近性中,风险投资企业与高科技产业的地理邻近关系超越新创企业。同时,中外资企业的“技术—资本”地理邻近性差异主要体现在,中资企业的“资本”地理邻近性强于外资企业,外资企业的“技术”地理邻近性偏重于“技术”中的创业层面,而中资企业则偏重于“技术”中的高科技产业层面。③ 随时间的变化,中外资企业具有不同的区位模式偏好及时间演变特征,但“资本”地理邻近型、“技术”地理邻近型、“技术—资本”地理邻近型和自身集聚型这四类典型区位模式始终稳定存在。研究认为促进区位内部企业间的多维邻近性和互动联系,对基于“知识和风险资本”的创新集群和创新空间发展具有重要的实践意义。     

How the States Got Their Shapes

Abstract

A baseline geography test was administered to over 3,000 Indiana college students enrolled in introductory geography courses. The National Council for Geographic Education Competency-Based Geography Test, Secondary Level, Form II, was used to measure the 1987 level of geographic ability in the areas of map skills, place-name location, physical geography, and human geography. Personal information gathered from each respondent included age, sex, travel experience, and level of geographic education. Older students scored better while geographically immobile groups scored lower. A strong correlation was found between travel and geographic knowledge. Findings show low overall geographic ability and that factors of age, travel experience and gender are correlated with certain aspects of geographic knowledge and skills.     

Chinese Junior High School Students' Perceptions of Geographic Fieldwork: A Case Study

After nearly ten years of implementation of the first junior high school geography standards, Chinese geography educators have been increasingly incorporating fieldwork into their geography teaching. This study examined student perceptions of fieldwork from an international perspective by reviewing student fieldwork reports and administering a questionnaire to 337 junior high school students aged approximately fifteen years. The results demonstrate that the students' perceptions of fieldwork were primarily positive and that they found field experience to be interesting. Fieldwork provided the students with deepened understanding of issues, cognitive and affective benefits, transferable skills and knowledge, social skills, demonstration, and memorable experience. In addition, some factors for improving geographic fieldwork were identified.     

From Geographic Holism to Geographic Information System

Substantial changes in a core idea of geography, integration, have occurred since Alexander von Humboldt published Kosmos (1845-1862). These changes are part of a larger shift in Western civilization to mechanistic reasoning. This shift led to the strengthening of system-based analysis, central to the development of geographic information systems (GIS). The duality of holism and the systems approach has led to an apparent contradiction in geography. R. Hartshorne in The Nature of Geography described this contradiction, but as did Alfred Hettner and Emil Wisotzki before, moved to partial systems as the core concept of geographic integration. Hartshorne's concept of vertical integration is the antecedent for the ubiquitous GIS layer model. The reduction of geographic relationships and processes to mechanistic components (layers) aids the systematic approach, but may lessen geographic understanding of a place's interrelationships. Although the partiality of the system approach was already acknowledged by Finch and Hartshorne in the 1930s, the tension between holistic and system approaches in geography remains. Holism and system-based approaches are indeed complementary methods for developing geographic understanding. Using holistic approaches to understand geographic phenomena, before we teleologically (following a purpose) analyze phenomena as a system, extends GIS to include broader interrelationships of geography in specific locations.     

From Geographic Holism to Geographic Information System

Substantial changes in a core idea of geography, integration, have occurred since Alexander von Humboldt published Kosmos (1845-1862). These changes are part of a larger shift in Western civilization to mechanistic reasoning. This shift led to the strengthening of system-based analysis, central to the development of geographic information systems (GIS). The duality of holism and the systems approach has led to an apparent contradiction in geography. R. Hartshorne in The Nature of Geography described this contradiction, but as did Alfred Hettner and Emil Wisotzki before, moved to partial systems as the core concept of geographic integration. Hartshorne's concept of vertical integration is the antecedent for the ubiquitous GIS layer model. The reduction of geographic relationships and processes to mechanistic components (layers) aids the systematic approach, but may lessen geographic understanding of a place's interrelationships. Although the partiality of the system approach was already acknowledged by Finch and Hartshorne in the 1930s, the tension between holistic and system approaches in geography remains. Holism and system-based approaches are indeed complementary methods for developing geographic understanding. Using holistic approaches to understand geographic phenomena, before we teleologically (following a purpose) analyze phenomena as a system, extends GIS to include broader interrelationships of geography in specific locations.     

A New Method for Finding Geographic Centers,with Application to U.S. States

The geographic center of a region is a fundamental geographic concept, and yet there is no commonly accepted method for its determination. This article discusses some of its history as well as its definition and calculation, and a new method for its calculation is suggested. The new method minimizes the sum of squared great circle distances from all points in the region to the center. This entails (1) projecting regional boundary points using an azimuthal equidistant projection, (2) finding the geographic center of the projected two-dimensional region, and (3) then transforming this location back to a latitude and longitude. This new approach is used to find the geographic center of the contiguous United States and to provide a new list of the geographic centers for U.S. states. This list improves on the widely used but inaccurate list published by the United States Geological Survey in 1923.     

沈阳市部门企业地理集聚与城市结构

基于产业空间聚集分布情况探寻城市结构特征,是当前大都市区实证研究中的聚焦点所在,但由于方法论的限制而无法真正揭示产业地理集聚之间的内在关联性。基于已有研究基础,试图通过完善潜力模型、设置距离参数、结合主成分分析法实现对产业地理集聚测度方法论的完善与发展,并选取极具代表性大都市区核心城市——沈阳市为样本单元,以2008年的经济普查部门企业数据开展实证检验。结果表明：沈阳市部门企业之间除了交通运输、仓储和邮政中心产业属于地方化经济外,其余的均为企业关联;水利、环境和公共设施管理业产业依附于制造业呈临街抑或隔街集聚,而与公共管理和组织产业之间同街道集聚;支配主角之间,存在中心CBD主宰制造业的布局,而制造业又在很大程度上影响着交通运输、仓储和邮政中心的布局;企业地理集聚形成的城市结构依然是一个明显的“单中心圈层”结构,没有表现出“去中心化”抑或多极化或分散化演变趋势。研究成果与现实情况基本吻合,侧面说明该模式对揭示城市产业地理集聚模式以及由此形成的城市结构特征具有一定的解释力。     

多源地理大数据支撑下的地理事件建模与分析

地理事件作为描述地理过程的基本单元,逐渐成为地理信息科学（GIS）核心研究内容。由于受人类活动数据获取限制,GIS对地理事件的建模和分析主要关注事件所引起的地理空间要素变化及要素之间的相互影响与作用机制。然而,近年来随着基于位置服务数据（LBS）爆炸式的增长和人类活动大数据定量刻画手段的快速发展,地理事件对人类活动的影响以及公众对地理事件的网络参与度都引起了多个领域的广泛关注,对地理事件的时空认知、建模方法和分析框架提出了巨大的挑战。对此,本文首先深入分析了大数据时代地理事件的概念与分类体系;其次,基于地理事件的时空语义给出了基于图模型的事件数据建模,建立了事件本体及其次生或级联事件的“节点—边”表达结构,开展了事件自身时空演化及其前“因”后“果”的形式化描述;第三,从时空数据分析与挖掘的角度,给出了大数据时代地理事件建模与分析的整体框架,拟突破传统“地理实体空间”事件探测与分析方法的局限性,融合“虚拟空间”事件发现与传播模拟思路,实现多源地理大数据支撑下的面向地理事件的人类活动多尺度时空响应与区域差异分析;最后,本文以城市暴雨事件为例诠释了本文所提出的地理事件建模与分析方法,从城市和城市内部两个尺度进行了暴雨事件与人类活动的一致性响应及区域差异分析,得到了明确的结论,验证了前文分析框架的可行性与实用性。     

“潭蓬运河”的疏凿及地理位置考析

“潭蓬运河”又名“天威径”“仙人垅”等,是晚唐咸通年间由静海军节度使高骈疏凿的,位于广西壮族自治区防城港市以南的江山半岛附近海域,是中国海上丝绸之路的重要组成部分。但其地理位置问题,至今尚有诸多疑点。论文基于历史文献等资料,深入考析“天威径”疏凿的历史背景、具体经过及其地理位置,对进一步明晰“天威径”的历史文化价值和在海上丝绸之路的历史地位有着重要意义。通过对相关历史文献资料的梳理和历史地理背景的考察,重新论证了“天威径”开凿的历史背景、具体经过和地理位置,研究表明：① “潭蓬运河”的位置应当是位于江山半岛南端的白龙尾以外海域之中,所谓“潭蓬运河”的开凿过程就是对白龙尾以南海域中礁石的疏凿;② “潭蓬运河”疏凿的目的在于为驻安南唐军提供持续稳定的后勤补给,疏凿的时间是在懿宗咸通九年;③ 本着尊重史实的原则,高骈疏凿的礁石之处应当命名为“天威径”,而半岛上的潭蓬古运河处,则应改名为“天威径石刻遗迹”。     

一种基于地理环境相似度的滑坡负样本可信度度量方法

滑坡负样本在统计型滑坡危险度制图中具有重要作用,能抑制统计模型对滑坡危险度的高估。当前滑坡负样本采样方法采集的负样本可信度未知,在负样本采样过程中,极有可能将那些潜在滑坡点错选为负样本,这些假的负样本会降低负样本集的质量和训练样本集的质量,进而影响统计模型的精度。本文基于“地理环境越相似、地理特征越相似”的地理学常识,认为与正样本有着相似地理环境的点极有可能是未来发生滑坡的点;与正样本的地理环境越不相似的点,则越有可能是负样本。基于此假设提出一种基于地理环境相似度的负样本可信度度量方法,将该方法应用于滑坡灾害频发的陇南山区油房沟流域,对油房沟进行滑坡负样本可信度评价制图;使用油房沟流域的滑坡发生初始面来验证该方法的有效性。结果发现：滑坡发生初始面上所有栅格点的负样本可信度平均值为0.26,超过95%的栅格点的负样本可信度都小于0.5,说明本文提出的负样本可信度度量方法合理。     

Criteria of geographic relevance: an experimental study

The relevance of geographic information has become an emerging problem in geographic information science due to an enormous increase in volumes of data at high spatial, temporal, and semantic resolution, because of ever faster rates of new data capturing. At the same time, it is not clear whether the concept of relevance developed in information science and implemented for document-based information retrieval can be directly applied to this new, highly dynamic setting. In this study, we analyze the criteria users apply when judging the relevance of geographic entities in a given mobile usage context. Two different experiments have been set up in order to gather users' opinions on a set of possible criteria, and their relevance judgements in a given scenario. The importance ascribed to the criteria in both experiments clearly implies that a new concept of relevance is required when dealing with geographic entities instead of digital documents. This new concept of ‘Geographic Relevance’ is highly dependent on personal mobility and user's activity, whose understanding may in turn be refined by the assimilation of ‘Geographic Relevance’ itself.     

Evaluating the Geographic in GIS

Despite several decades of discussion and debate around the role of GIS in the discipline of Geography, it would be a stretch to argue that GIS has not irreversibly altered the discipline, both in the scope of research and teaching as well as in the wider imagination of a general public. However, it remains a challenge to incorporate the range of geographic knowledge, born of a diversity of modalities, into operational insights and analytical pre‐conditions in a GIS. To be certain, some irreconcilability between GIS and geographical inquiry is to be expected, epistemologically speaking. In what follows, we consider what might be meant by a shift to geographic analysis as scholars from disciplines in the humanities and social sciences turn to GIS as a method of observation, interpretation, analysis, and representation. In this context, we engage in a thought experiment and offer some commentary, fixing the notion of information system, while opening the geographic in GIS to more variable understanding. The point is to pursue greater development of GIS theory and method, encompassing, while not reducing, scientific, social scientific, and humanities research.