Using the Definition of Geography to Develop Teaching Strategies

Abstract

Climatic Change, Basingstoke and London: Macmillan Education, 1981. v and 34 pp., figs., tables, maps, refs., and index. $2.50 paper.

Vanishing Roadside America, Warren H. Anderson, Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1981. 142 pp. and illus. $14.95 paper.

USSR in Maps, J.C. Dewdney, New York: Holmes &; Meier, 1982. vi and 117 pp., diags., maps, tables, graphs, biblio., and index. $29.50.     

Field Work in the Elementary School

Abstract

This research examines the effects of culture on a child's perceptions of his or her neighborhood by comparing the neighborhood sketch maps of a group of Amish and non-Amish children from the same rural Pennsylvania neighborhood. The results of this study lend credence to the belief that early and intensive acculturation helps define our sense of “neighborhood” very early in life. There are possible applications to multicultural education in this study. As we discover what is important to students from other subcultures and backgrounds, we can customize our instruction to make it more meaningful and effective.     

Books,Places, Regions—A Natural Blend

Abstract

Children love books, and through carefully chosen ones geographic concepts can be conveyed. Books are good resources—great background material for describing a place, emphasizing the culture of a region, highlighting a geographical issue, or clarifying where a place is in the world. This article explains how literature encourages geographic thinking, builds geographic skills, and develops lasting mental maps of places and regions.     

Mental Mapping: A Lesson That Creates Itself

Abstract

Mental image and place-preference maps of college students in Florida were created through a two-part lesson. The patterns revealed by these maps were linked to students' life experiences, census data on migration and income, and similar studies conducted in other states. Students prefer states with established migration links to Florida and better income/job opportunities. Because the maps could not be created without their input, students were wholly engaged in a lesson that uses concepts in population geography and cartography to fulfill several national geography standards.     

Utilizing the Audio-Tutorial Approach

Abstract

Construction of raised-relief maps by students in middle school to high school is a rewarding “hands-on” experience. A major feature of this project is that materials are readily available, inexpensive and manageable by students themselves. Tracing from topographic maps on to inexpensive, easily-carved materials like cardboard or foam-core board involves the student in map interpretation techniques. Concepts such as interpreting elevations from contour lines, recognizing symbolization on a map, seeing raised-relief as representing “the lay of the land,” understanding map scale, and recognition of color in representation of elevations are part of this experience. Carving and construction of the raised-relief map give the student an appreciation of topographic features in 3-D. The finished model can serve as a display and learning tool for the future.     

Personalizing map content to improve task completion efficiency

Significant interaction challenges arise in both developing and using interactive map applications. Users encounter problems of information overload in using interactive maps to complete tasks. This is further exacerbated by device limitations and interaction constraints in increasingly popular mobile platforms. Application developers must then address restrictions related to screen size and limited bandwidth in order to effectively display maps on mobile devices. In order to address issues of user information overload and application efficiency in interactive map applications, we have developed a novel approach for delivering personalized vector maps. Ongoing task interactions between users and maps are monitored and captured implicitly in order to infer individual and group preferences related to specific map feature content. Personalized interactive maps that contain spatial feature content tailored specifically to users' individual preferences are then generated. Our approach addresses spatial information overload by providing only the map information necessary and sufficient to suit user interaction preferences, thus simplifying the completion of tasks performed with interactive maps. In turn, tailoring map content to specific user preferences considerably reduces the size of vector data sets necessary to transmit and render maps on mobile devices. We have developed a geographic information system prototype, MAPPER (MAP PERsonalization), that implements our approach. Experimental evaluations show that the use of personalized maps helps users complete their tasks more efficiently and can reduce information overload.     

Organization of Feature-, Time-, and Location-Based Mental Models

This study considers how mental models are encoded into memory by viewing visual displays like maps. A mental model is an internal representation of a situation that links objects or concepts to other objects or concepts. Previous studies indicated location-based mental models are encoded when a series of propositional statements such as the object is in the location are read from a text. Evidence that locations were being used as the basic container for an organization of mental models is provided by a significant fan effect. A fan effect shows an increase in reaction time with the number of models considered when making a decision. Features, times, and locations were considered as possible containers in the mental models. Subjects created location-based mental models, but also encoded feature-based mental models. A reverse fan effect for time, found for a map animation, suggested the order of the presentation of maps could greatly affect the structure of learned information.     

Automatic alignment of contemporary vector data and georeferenced historical maps using reinforcement learning

ABSTRACT

With large amounts of digital map archives becoming available, automatically extracting information from scanned historical maps is needed for many domains that require long-term historical geographic data. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) are powerful techniques that can be used for extracting locations of geographic features from scanned maps if sufficient representative training data are available. Existing spatial data can provide the approximate locations of corresponding geographic features in historical maps and thus be useful to annotate training data automatically. However, the feature representations, publication date, production scales, and spatial reference systems of contemporary vector data are typically very different from those of historical maps. Hence, such auxiliary data cannot be directly used for annotation of the precise locations of the features of interest in the scanned historical maps. This research introduces an automatic vector-to-raster alignment algorithm based on reinforcement learning to annotate precise locations of geographic features on scanned maps. This paper models the alignment problem using the reinforcement learning framework, which enables informed, efficient searches for matching features without pre-processing steps, such as extracting specific feature signatures (e.g. road intersections). The experimental results show that our algorithm can be applied to various features (roads, water lines, and railroads) and achieve high accuracy.     

The World's Import Trade and the United States' Share Therein

Abstract

Many student geography organizations or clubs associated with colleges and universities undertake community service projects each year to meet local needs and to gain recognition within the community. A uniquely geographical project of playground map painting provides a great community service and goes one step further by incorporating elements of quality service-learning for the geography club members. Painting projects for large school playground maps of the world, United States, or home state are student-planned and student-run. The final painted map can be used for geographic education in elementary schools by conveying basic spatial and geographic relationships. This article will detail a proven method of producing a colorful, useful playground map that can be employed by geography clubs as a service-learning activity and used by educators in elementary schools.     

Delmarva Coastal Bays Map Contest for Fourth Graders

Abstract

This map contest is an exercise in geographic education for fourth grade students. It is sponsored by a grassroots, nonprofit environmental organization to raise the awareness and appreciation of students to the special features of their home region. The maps illustrate some aspect of the living resources or history of the region. As a case study of the map contest, this paper describes its design, publicity, appeal to teachers, judging of entries, and role of volunteers. It considers the research on map skills among young students and ways in which the contest supports geographic education.     

The Trade and Industries of Western South America

Abstract

This research was based on an instructional module developed and used to investigate whether GIS can be used to enhance fourth grade students' geographic knowledge and map skills. Another goal was to identify challenges the teachers and the students face using GIS.

Findings from the study suggest that using GIS in the classroom helps students improve their geographic knowledge and maps skills. In addition, this study found that the students' geographic content knowledge tended to improve gradually and the knowledge transferred to the subsequent lessons, while certain map skills tended to develop in a more specific manner.     

Ad hoc matching of vectorial road networks

In integration of road maps modeled as road vector data, the main task is matching pairs of objects that represent, in different maps, the same segment of a real-world road. In an ad hoc integration, the matching is done for a specific need and, thus, is performed in real time, where only a limited preprocessing is possible. Usually, ad hoc integration is performed as part of some interaction with a user and, hence, the matching algorithm is required to complete its task in time that is short enough for human users to provide feedback to the application, that is, in no more than a few seconds. Such interaction is typical of services on the World Wide Web and to applications in car-navigation systems or in handheld devices.

Several algorithms were proposed in the past for matching road vector data; however, these algorithms are not efficient enough for ad hoc integration. This article presents algorithms for ad hoc integration of maps in which roads are represented as polylines. The main novelty of these algorithms is in using only the locations of the endpoints of the polylines rather than trying to match whole lines. The efficiency of the algorithms is shown both analytically and experimentally. In particular, these algorithms do not require the existence of a spatial index, and they are more efficient than an alternative approach based on using a grid index. Extensive experiments using various maps of three different cities show that our approach to matching road networks is efficient and accurate (i.e., it provides high recall and precision).

General Terms:Algorithms, Experimentation     

Ethnic Settlements on Topographic Maps

Abstract

The large scale topographic map can be a valuable medium for the pedagogic study of cultural geography, as a documentary source for research, or as a supplement to field work. Ethnic settlements, by way of illustration, are distinct cultural features on the landscape and can be located on topographic maps through the compilation of settlement form interpretation keys or place-name indexes, and the study of ethnic history. With this information as a base, it is possible to develop an interpretation logic that will allow the location and identification of ethnic groups on topographic maps.     

Interpretation of Specialized Agricultural Settlements on Topographic Maps

Abstract

The topographic map can successfully supplement the geographical textbook and the field trip in aiding the teacher in the illustration of the cultural character of a place. Interpretation of cultural features on topographic maps requires a knowledge of map symbolization and some familiarity with the area or topic under study. An example of the type of cultural features that are well-illustrated by topographic maps is specialized agricultural settlement such as the gentleman horse farm. The student can formulate an interpretation key of the characteristic features of each settlement type. This will allow the successful interpretation of maps from distant or unfamiliar areas through comparison and even allow the map reader to “travel,” although vicariously, to distant areas.     

Using Road Maps in the Junior High School

Abstract

The activities described in this paper were developed to familiarize junior high school students with the variety of information available on road maps and to provide a means for practice of map skills. At Legg Junior High School in Coldwater, Michigan, students were presented with an introduction to road maps, followed by a series of worksheets to use in conjunction with Michigan and Ontario highway maps. After completing the worksheets, students participated in road rally games which required them to use maps and follow instructions and clues to find a specific location. The activities can be adapted for elementary school classes or for students with different levels of ability. Teachers might also want to increase the number of worksheets or road rallies to give students additional practice in skills in which they particularly need improvement.     

Comparisons of Conventional “Subdued” to Vivid “Highly Contrasting” Color Schemes for Elementary School Maps: Report of An Experiment

Abstract

The appropriateness of color schemes commonly used on maps for middle grade children has been inadequately researched. Most contemporary designs seem based more on adult conventions than on investigations to determine the factors that make maps interesting and readable to children. Based on four specially-prepared maps and 384 interview sessions with subjects enrolled in fourth, fifth, and sixth grades of a public school system, the findings of this study provide some clear implications for those who either design or purchase maps for classroom use.     

How Textbooks Influence the Curriculum in Geography

Abstract

In this study, pairs of students in fifth and seventh grade generated and answered questions based on maps. More than 90 percent of the questions they generated made sense with reference to the map on which they were based. Each of these questions was coded in terms of both its informational content (symbols, latitude and longitude, and scale) and the process by which a map user obtains the information from the map (map reading, map interpreting, map inferring). Results indicated that students most often generated three types of questions, which together accounted for more than 80 percent of all the questions: 1) read symbol, 2) infer latitude and longitude, and 3) interpret scale. Qualitatively, the questions were analyzed for what they revealed about student confusion about map content. Problems with all three aspects of map content were common among both fifth- and seventh-grade students. The problem-posing technique proved useful for evaluating student's knowledge.     

Why Geography Still Needs Pen and Ink Cartography

Abstract

Maps are fundamental in geographic explanation and education, but as map-making becomes firmly entrenched in the GIS lab, it becomes harder for students to imagine how they can make maps for their papers. Students need to illustrate papers with maps: among other things, maps provide clarity, links to real places, and insights into patterns and context of phenomena discussed in student papers. A simple, quick, and aesthetically satisfying method for students to make their own maps is presented. This map making method can help students can think more creatively and geographically about their topics.     

Map Reading and Abuse

Abstract

The various advantages and limitations of geographical mapping known to map users can be functionally related to the few basic principles which constitute the very nature of the cartographic technique. Numerous map interpretation errors may be traced in large part to a common failure on the part of map users to grasp and effectively deal with these same mapping principles. Since it is possible to identify situations in environmental decision making and planning where the misuse of maps, or outright map reading abuses, could lead to adverse human and environmental impact, the problem is indeed serious. Strategies for minimizing the misuse or abuse of geographical maps appear to rely most heavily on a thorough understanding of basic mapping principles.     

SCALING TECHNIQUES IN THE ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL COGNITION DATA∗

The utility of nonmetric, multidimensional-scaling techniques is demonstrated for the analysis and collection of environmental-cognition data. By comparing the multidimensional-scaling solutions of a real-setting map to scaling solutions for sketch maps and two psychophysical, distance-scaling procedures, we demonstrate that magnitude estimation of actual interpoint distances is comparable in accuracy to sketch maps when produced without constraints, or when subjects are given a specified list of landmarks to include on their maps. Triadic comparisons of actual interpoint distances were less accurate than the three other techniques.