东亚和西北太平洋地区气候的准10年尺度振荡及其可能机制

本文基于对气候、大气环流和海表水温的资料分析以及简单的理想化海气耦合模式的分析,研究了东亚和西北太平洋地区气候的准１０年振荡及其可能机制。研究表明,东亚和西北太平洋地区的气候（降水和地面气温等）和大气环流（环流指数和副高活动等）的演变都有明显的准１０年振荡;同赤道太平洋ＳＳＴＡ主要为ＥＮＳＯ循环不同,西北太平洋ＳＳＴＡ主要表现为准１０年尺度的振荡,且同气候和大气环流的准１０年变化密切相关;中纬度海－气相互作用可产生一种甚低频耦合波（１０年左右周期）,它可能是海气系统准１０年振荡的重要机制之一     

ENSO循环的数值模拟──Ⅰ:水平结构演变

利用发展的包含海洋表面边界展和大气辐合反馈过程的热带太平洋海气耦合距平模式，对ＥＮＳＯ循环进行了模拟。通过３０ａ积分，用合模式所展示的热带太平洋海气耦合系统的ＥＮＳＯ循环的水平结构演变特征和观测事实甚为一致，成功地模拟出了ＥＮＳＯ循环的冷暖态的发生发展、衰亡及相互转换等各个位相的动力和热力场的水平结构及其对季节循环的依赖性特征。本文数值模拟结果表明，ＥＮＳＯ循环的主要动力学过程可由热带海气相互作用系统自身所确定。ＥＮＳＯ循环的正确模拟是揭示其形成机制的前提。     

热带海气耦合距平模式中的ENSO循环及其形成机制

本文研制设计了一包含海洋表面边界层和大气辐合反馈过程的热带太平洋海气耦合异常模式。进而利用该模式对ＥＮＳＯ循环进行了成功的模拟。通过对模式ＥＮＳＯ循环的演变特征及其形成机制的细致分析，揭示了ＥＮＳＯ暖位相的一种机制。     

ENSO循环的数值模拟(Ⅱ)──变化性及时间尺度选择机制

利用热带太平洋海气耦合异常模式的３０ａ模拟结果，对模式ＥＮＳＯ的变化性及多重时间尺度过程进行了细致分析，建立了一ＥＮＳＯ循环多重时间尺度过程相互作用的非线性相似（Ａｎａｌｏｇ）模型，并提出了ＥＮＳＯ循环主周期形成的一种可能机制。指出：和观测事实类似，模式ＥＮＳＯ过程确实涉及到三种时间尺度，即３—４ａ主周期振荡（ＬＦ）、准两年振荡（ＱＢ）和年循环（ＡＣ）；其中，ＱＢ过程是线性海气耦合系统的本征模态，年循环（ＡＣ）对其形成没有本质的影响；３—４ａ主周期振荡（ＬＦ）是一非线性系统的自激振荡现象，其形成是线性系统的本征模即ＱＢ过程通过非线性机制尤其是通过大气辐合反馈加热的“单向性”过程在ＱＢ的暖态产生的减频增幅所致；平均年循环（ＡＣ）虽然不能对ＥＮＳＯ循环形成有本质影响，但它可明显影响ＥＮＳＯ循环的具体振幅和位相，使得ＥＮＳＯ循环具有明显的不规则性并对季节循环具有明显的“锁相”特征；ＥＮＳＯ变化性确是ＬＦ、ＱＢ以及ＡＣ多重时间尺度相互作用形成的。本文提出的ＥＮＳＯ循环时间尺度选择机制不仅解释了主周期振荡的形成过程，而且也较好地解释了ＥＮＳＯ变化的谱，因此，这一机制更接近于观测事实。     

ENSO及其对亚洲季风和我国气候变化影响的研究

ＥＮＳＯ及其对亚洲季风和我国气候变化影响的研究是当今气候研究中的重要问题，本文总结了作者在《气候动力学和气候预测方法研究》项目中有关专题“大洋，尤其ＥＮＳＯ和西太平洋暖池对东亚大气环流和我国气候影响”的研究工作，主要分三方面：１，ＥＮＳＯ是多时空尺度海气相互作用的结果－ＥＮＳＯ形成机理的研究；２．ＭＥＮＳＯ对我国东亚季风和我国气候影响，３，ＥＮＳＯ及其对我国气候影响的可预报性和预报试验。     

赤道印度洋—太平洋地区海气系统的齿轮式耦合和ENSO事件 I.资料分析

利用历史观测数据,研究了印度洋海表温度（ＳＳＴ）的季节变化特征,证实赤道印度洋和东太平洋ＳＳＴ年际变化有显著的正相关,指出这种正相关是由于沿赤道印度洋上空纬向季风环流和太平洋上空Ｗａｌｋｅｒ环流之间显著的耦合造成的。这两个异常的纬向环流圈之间的耦合形式看起来很象是存在于赤道印度洋和太平洋上空的一对齿轮（简写为ＧＩＰ）,当一个作顺时向变化时,另一个则作反时向变化。文中还证明ＥＮＳＯ事件与ＧＩＰ的年际异常存在很好的对应关系,暖事件时ＧＩＰ为反向运转;冷事件时ＧＩＰ为正向运转;异常的ＧＩＰ的啮合点位于印尼群岛附近。对８０年代以来的ＥＮＳＯ事件的分析表明,每次事件前期异常的ＧＩＰ的啮合点首先出现在印度洋上空,然后逐渐传入太平洋,引起ＧＩＰ东侧的大气纬向风ｕ和ＳＳＴ同时发生异常变化。当这种风场和ＳＳＴ的异常变化发展东传到达赤道中东太平洋时,导致ＥＮＳＯ事件最终出现。本文由此指出印度洋上空纬向环流的异常可以通过印度洋和太平洋上空大气系统的齿轮式耦合去影响赤道中东太平洋的海－气相互作用并触发ＥＮＳＯ事件发生。     

ENSO引起的短期气候异常变化的潜在可预报性的数值研究

本文用大气环流模式研究了ＥＮＳＯ引起的全球短期气候异常变化的潜在可预报性。大气对ＥｌＮｉｎｏ／ＬａＮｉｎａ事件的响应应分为瞬时响应和迟后响应。最后探讨了这种潜在可预报性形成的可能机理。     

青藏高原臭氧的ENSO

通过对臭氧卫星观测资料及大气环流资料的分析，研究了青藏高原上空臭氧年际变化中的 ＥＮＳＯ信号，并与同纬度无山区及赤道地区进行比较。研究指出：在 Ｅ１ Ｎｉｎｏ年（ＳＯＩ指数为负）青藏高原臭氧总量增加，在 Ｌａ Ｎｉｎａ年（ＳＯＩ指数为正）青藏高原臭氧总量减小。本文同时讨论了与ＥＮＳＯ事件有关的大气环流物质输送。     

热带大气季节内振荡激发El Nino的机制

资料分析了表明,热带大气季节内振荡同Ｅｌ Ｎｉｎｏ发生有密切的关系。在Ｅｌ Ｎｉｎｏ事件发生之前,热带大气（尤其是赤道西太平洋地区）季节内振荡异常加强;伴随着Ｅｌ Ｎｉｎｏ的发生,热带大气季节内振荡动能明显增加。简单海－气耦合模式的分析表明,只有在年陵时间尺度大气外强迫作用下,海－气系统才可以产生类似ＥＮＳＯ模的耦合波。资料和理论模式分析和结果相结合,说明热带大气季节内振荡激发Ｅｌ Ｎｉｎｏ的机制     

一个热带太平洋上层海洋环流模式及其检验研究

为进行ＥＮＳＯ的模拟与预测,在中国科学院大气物理研究所原有的较低分辨率全球海洋环流模式的基础上,引入依赖于Ｒｉｃｈａｒｄｓｏｎ数的垂直扩散方案和太阳短波辐射穿透的物理过程,发展了一个较高分辨率的热带太平洋上层海洋环流模式。利用该模式和１９８０～１９９５年大气强迫场的观测,进行了热带太平洋海温及环流的结构和演变的数值模拟研究,并利用美国国家环境预报中心（ＮＣＥＰ）的同时段的海洋同化分析,就海洋及其时间变化的三维特征,检验了模拟结果。首先,检验了该模式对ＥＮＳＯ事件的三维结构特征及其演变的模拟能力,结果表明：这１６年间所有冷暖事件的发生、发展和消亡均得到基本正确的模拟;海温异常的强度和结构特征与实况有偏差,尤其是次表层,距平量在赤道西太平洋和沿斜温层显著弱于实况;表层海温（ＳＳＴ）距平与实况较为接近,只是在日期变更线附近偏大。然后,强调海气耦合模式要成功预测ＥＮＳＯ,真正严峻的考验是海洋模式对次表层海洋的模拟能力,而不能仅仅满足于对ＳＳＴ的正确模拟。因此,为全面评估该海洋模式,探讨模式误差的原因,根据同化资料,找出年际变化和季节变化最显著的区域之后,检验了多年平均状态及其季节变化、年际变率及其季节变化等统计量。     

CoPIVEP: a theory-based analysis of coupled processes and interannual variability in the Equatorial Pacific in four coupled GCMs

 The interannual variability over the tropical Pacific and a possible link with the mean state or the seasonal cycle is examined in four coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models (GCM). Each model is composed of a high-resolution ocean GCM of either the tropical Pacific or near-global oceans coupled to a moderate-resolution atmospheric GCM, without using flux correction. The oceanic subsurface is considered to describe the mean state or the seasonal cycle through the analytical formulations of some potential coupled processes. These coupled processes characterise the zonal gradient of sea surface temperature (hereafter SST), the oceanic vertical gradient of temperature and the equatorial upwelling. The simulated SST patterns of the mean state and the interannual signals are generally too narrow. The grid of the oceanic model could control the structure of the SST interannual signals while the behaviour of the atmospheric model could be important in the link between the oceanic surface and the subsurface. The first SST EOFs are different between the coupled models, however, the second SST EOFs are quite similar and could correspond to the return to the normal state while that of the observations (COADS) could favour the initial anomaly. All the models seem to simulate a similar equatorial wave-like dynamics to return to the normal state. The more the basic state is unstable from the coupled processes point of view, the more the interannual signal are high. It seems that the basic state could control the intensity of the interannual variability. Two models, which have a significant seasonal variation of the interannual variance, also have a significant seasonal variation of the instability with a few months lag. The potential seasonal phase locking of the interannual fluctuations need to be examined in more models to confirm its existence in current tropical GCMs. Received: 30 July 1999 / Accepted: 25 April 2000     

全球海洋大气耦合环流模式中的ENSO特征对气候背景态改变的敏感性

文中利用一个高分辨率全球海-气耦合环流模式设计两组长期积分试验,揭示了在不同气候背景态下热带太平洋年际变化特征及模式ENSO循环控制机理的差异。通过分析海表温度、上层海洋热容量和低层风场异常的年际变化特征及其和赤道中东太平洋海表温度异常的关系,揭示了基于不同气候背景场的ENSO循环的不同演变过程。结果表明:ENSO年际变率特征(包括振幅、频率等)对气候背景态相当敏感,在不同的背景场下ENSO循环的控制模态可以明显不同。试验表明,当热带太平洋东冷西暖的背景热力梯度接近多年气候平均时,模式ENSO循环表现为所谓的“时滞振子”模态控制,而随着东西向背景热力梯度显著减小,ENSO循环则可以表现为驻波模态控制。研究结果为认识年代际背景变化影响年际ENSO循环的机理提供了一种启示。     

A Coupled General Circulation Model for the Tropical Pacific Ocean and Global Atmosphere

On the basis of Zeng’s theoretical design, a coupled general circulation model (CGCM) is developed with its characteristics different from other CGCMs such as the unified vertical coordinates and subtraction of the standard stratification for both atmosphere and ocean, available energy consideration, and so on. The oceanic component is a free surface tropical Pacific Ocean GCM between 30oN and 30oS with horizontal grid spacing of 1o in latitude and 2o in longitude, and with 14 vertical layers. The atmospheric component it a global GCM with low-resolution of 4o in latitude and 5o in longitude, and two layers or equal man in the vertical between the surface and 200 hPa. The atmospheric GCM includes comprehensive physical processes. The coupled model is subjected to seasonally-varying cycle. Several coupling experiments, ranging from straight forward coupling without flux correction to one with flux correction, and to so-called predictor-corrector monthly coupling (PCMC), are conducted to show the existence and final controlling of the climate drift in the coupled system. After removing the climate drift with the PCMC scheme, the coupled model is integrated for more than twenty years. The results show reasonable simulations of the annual mean and its seasonal cycle of the atmospheric and oceanic circulation. The model also produces the coherent interannual variations of the climate system, manifesting the observed El Ni?o / Southern Oscillation (ENSO).     

热带太平洋和印度洋海面高度季节循环和年际变化的数值模拟

利用卫星海面高度计资料,分析了赤道太平洋和印度洋海面高度变化的季节和年际变化特征,并与一个耦合气候系统模式FGCM0模拟的海面高度进行比较,评估模式模拟海面高度季节和年际变化的能力.结果表明,尽管耦合模式存在一定的系统误差,但仍然能在相当程度上模拟出海面高度季节和年际变化的基本特征.同时为检验模式中印度尼西亚贯穿流(ITF)对海面高度季节和年际变化的影响,还进行了印度尼西亚海道完全关闭的敏感性试验,与控制试验结果对比表明,印度尼西亚贯穿流可以显著影响热带太平洋和印度洋年际变化的特征.     

Modulation of El Nino-Southern Oscillation by Freshwater Flux and Salinity Variability in the Tropical Pacific

The El Nin o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is modulated by many factors; most previous studies have emphasized the roles of wind stress and heat flux in the tropical Pacific. Freshwater flux (FWF) is another environmental forcing to the ocean; its effect and the related ocean salinity variability in the ENSO region have been of increased interest recently. Currently, accurate quantifications of the FWF roles in the climate remain challenging; the related observations and coupled ocean-atmosphere modeling involve large elements of uncertainty. In this study, we utilized satellite-based data to represent FWF-induced feedback in the tropical Pacific climate system; we then incorporated these data into a hybrid coupled ocean-atmosphere model (HCM) to quantify its effects on ENSO. A new mechanism was revealed by which interannual FWF forcing modulates ENSO in a significant way. As a direct forcing, FWF exerts a significant influence on the ocean through sea surface salinity (SSS) and buoyancy flux (Q B ) in the western-central tropical Pacific. The SSS perturbations directly induced by ENSO-related interannual FWF variability affect the stability and mixing in the upper ocean. At the same time, the ENSO-induced FWF has a compensating effect on heat flux, acting to reduce interannual Q B variability during ENSO cycles. These FWF-induced processes in the ocean tend to modulate the vertical mixing and entrainment in the upper ocean, enhancing cooling during La Nin a and enhancing warming during El Nin o, respectively. The interannual FWF forcing-induced positive feedback acts to enhance ENSO amplitude and lengthen its time scales in the tropical Pacific coupled climate system.     

Coupled climate modelling of ocean circulation changes during ice age inception

Freshening of high latitude surface waters can change the large-scale oceanic transport of heat and salt. Consequently, atmospheric and sea ice perturbations over the deep water production sites excite a large-scale response establishing an oceanic "teleconnection" with time scales of years to centuries. To study these feedbacks, a coupled atmosphere-ocean-sea ice model consisting of a two dimensional atmospheric energy and moisture balance model (EMBM) coupled to a thermodynamic sea ice model and an ocean general circulation model is utilised. The coupled model reproduces many aspects of the present oceanic circulation. We also investigate the climate impact of changes in fresh water balance during an ice age initiation. In this experiment part of the precipitation over continents is stored within continental ice sheets. During the buildup of ice sheets the oceanic stratification in the North Atlantic is weakened by a reduced continental run-off leading to an enhanced thermohaline circulation. Under these conditions salinity is redistributed such that deep water is more saline than under present conditions. Once the ice sheets built up, we simulate an ice age climate without net fresh water storage on the continents. In this case the coupled model reproduces the shallow and weak overturning cell, an ice edge advance insulating the upper ocean, and many other aspects of the glacial circulation.     

On the seesaw in interannual variability of upper ocean heat advection between the North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre and the Nordic Seas

In this study we investigate the interannual variability of the heat content of the upper North Atlantic and the main factors, which influence the observed variability: the ocean-atmosphere heat exchange and the ocean heat transport. The data from the combined in situ and satellite dataset ARMOR-3D, and from the ocean reanalyzes ORAS5 and SODA3 (two versions) show a similar decadal interannual variability of the heat content, as well as of oceanic heat transports the study regions, though the mean values may differ. The observed variations are linked to the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAOI). The current velocity of the North Atlantic, East Greenland and Labrador currents of the Subpolar Gyre increases with the NAOI, but the velocity of the Irminger and West Greenland currents decreases. This forms a seesaw of heat advection by the North Atlantic Current between the Subpolar Gyre and Nordic Seas. In the Subpolar gyre during the periods of high NAOI, this negative anomaly of the oceanic heat convergence adds to the intensified sea-surface heat release to the atmosphere, together effectively reducing the upper ocean heat content. The upper ocean heat content of the Norwegian Sea shows practically no link to the NAOI, in spite of a somewhat larger oceanic heat flux across its southern boundary linked to high NAOI.     

Impact of diurnal atmosphere–ocean coupling on tropical climate simulations using a coupled GCM

The impacts of diurnal atmosphere–ocean (air–sea) coupling on tropical climate simulations are investigated using the SNU coupled GCM. To investigate the effect of the atmospheric and oceanic diurnal cycles on a climate simulation, a 1-day air–sea coupling interval experiment is compared to a 2-h coupling experiment. As previous studies have suggested, cold temperature biases over equatorial western Pacific regions are significantly reduced when diurnal air–sea coupling strategy is implemented. This warming is initiated by diurnal rectification and amplified further by the air–sea coupled feedbacks. In addition to its effect on the mean climatology, the diurnal coupling has also a distinctive impact on the amplitude of the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It is demonstrated that a weakening of the ENSO magnitude is caused by reduced (increased) surface net heat fluxes into the ocean during El Nino (La Nina) events. Primarily, decreased (increased) incoming shortwave radiation during El Nino (La Nina) due to cloud shading is responsible for the net heat fluxes associated with ENSO.     

What controls equatorial Atlantic winds in boreal spring?

The factors controlling equatorial Atlantic winds in boreal spring are examined using both observations and general circulation model (GCM) simulations from the coupled model intercomparison phase 5. The results show that the prevailing surface easterlies flow against the attendant pressure gradient and must therefore be maintained by other terms in the momentum budget. An important contribution comes from meridional advection of zonal momentum but the dominant contribution is the vertical transport of zonal momentum from the free troposphere to the surface. This implies that surface winds are strongly influenced by conditions in the free troposphere, chiefly pressure gradients and, to a lesser extent, meridional advection. Both factors are linked to the patterns of deep convection. Applying these findings to GCM errors indicates, that, consistent with the results of previous studies, the persistent westerly surface wind bias found in most GCMs is due mostly to precipitation errors, in particular excessive precipitation south of the equator over the ocean and deficient precipitation over equatorial South America. Free tropospheric influences also dominate the interannual variability of surface winds in boreal spring. GCM experiments with prescribed climatological sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) indicate that the free tropospheric influences are mostly associated with internal atmospheric variability. Since the surface wind anomalies in boreal spring are crucial to the development of warm SST events (Atlantic Niños), the results imply that interannual variability in the region may rely far less on coupled air–sea feedbacks than is the case in the tropical Pacific.     

Isolating mesoscale coupled ocean–atmosphere interactions in the Kuroshio Extension region

The Kuroshio Extension region is characterized by energetic oceanic mesoscale and frontal variability that alters the air–sea fluxes that can influence large-scale climate variability in the North Pacific. We investigate this mesoscale air-sea coupling using a regional eddy-resolving coupled ocean–atmosphere (OA) model that downscales the observed large-scale climate variability from 2001 to 2007. The model simulates many aspects of the observed seasonal cycle of OA coupling strength for both momentum and turbulent heat fluxes. We introduce a new modeling approach to study the scale-dependence of two well-known mechanisms for the surface wind response to mesoscale sea surface temperatures (SSTs), namely, the ‘vertical mixing mechanism’ (VMM) and the ‘pressure adjustment mechanism’ (PAM). We compare the fully coupled model to the same model with an online, 2-D spatial smoother applied to remove the mesoscale SST field felt by the atmosphere. Both VMM and PAM are found to be active during the strong wintertime peak seen in the coupling strength in both the model and observations. For VMM, large-scale SST gradients surprisingly generate coupling between downwind SST gradient and wind stress divergence that is often stronger than the coupling on the mesoscale, indicating their joint importance in OA interaction in this region. In contrast, VMM coupling between crosswind SST gradient and wind stress curl occurs only on the mesoscale, and not over large-scale SST gradients, indicating the essential role of the ocean mesocale. For PAM, the model results indicate that coupling between the Laplacian of sea level pressure and surface wind convergence occurs for both mesoscale and large-scale processes, but inclusion of the mesoscale roughly doubles the coupling strength. Coupling between latent heat flux and SST is found to be significant throughout the entire seasonal cycle in both fully coupled mode and large-scale coupled mode, with peak coupling during winter months. The atmospheric response to the oceanic mesoscale SST is also studied by comparing the fully coupled run to an uncoupled atmospheric model forced with smoothed SST prescribed from the coupled run. Precipitation anomalies are found to be forced by surface wind convergence patterns that are driven by mesoscale SST gradients, indicating the importance of the ocean forcing the atmosphere at this scale.