Phenology shift from 1989 to 2008 on the Tibetan Plateau: an analysis with a process-based soil physical model and remote sensing data

Phenology is critical to ecosystem carbon quantification, and yet has not been well modeled considering both aboveground and belowground environmental variables. This is especially true for alpine and pan-arctic regions where soil physical conditions play a significant role in determining the timing of phenology. Here we examine how the spatiotemporal pattern of satellite-derived phenology is related to soil physical conditions simulated with a soil physical model on the Tibetan Plateau for the period 1989–2008. Our results show that spatial patterns and temporal trends of phenology are parallel with the corresponding soil physical conditions for different study periods. On average, 1 °C increase in soil temperature advances the start of growing season (SOS) by 4.6 to 9.9 days among different vegetation types, and postpones the end of growing season (EOS) by 7.3 to 10.5 days. Soil wetting meditates such trends, especially in areas where warming effect is significant. Soil thermal thresholds for SOS and EOS, defined as the daily mean soil temperatures corresponding to the phenological metrics, are spatially clustered, and are closely correlated with mean seasonal temperatures in Spring and Autumn, respectively. This study highlights the importance and feasibility of incorporating spatially explicit soil temperature and moisture information, instead of air temperature and precipitation, into phenology models so as to improve carbon modeling. The method proposed and empirical relations established between phenology and soil physical conditions for Alpine ecosystems on the Tibetan plateau could also be applicable for other cold regions.     

Seasonal and interannual variations of carbon exchange over a rice-wheat rotation system on the North China Plain

Rice-wheat (R-W) rotation systems are ubiquitous in South and East Asia, and play an important role in modulating the carbon cycle and climate. Long-term, continuous flux measurements help in better understanding the seasonal and interannual variation of the carbon budget over R-W rotation systems. In this study, measurements of CO2 fluxes and meteorological variables over an R-W rotation system on the North China Plain from 2007 to 2010 were analyzed. To analyze the abiotic factors regulating Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE), NEE was partitioned into gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration. Nighttime NEE or ecosystem respiration was controlled primarily by soil temperature, while daytime NEE was mainly determined by photosythetically active radiation (PAR). The responses of nighttime NEE to soil temperature and daytime NEE to light were closely associated with crop development and photosynthetic activity, respectively. Moreover, the interannual variation in GPP and NEE mainly depended on precipitation and PAR. Overall, NEE was negative on the annual scale and the rotation system behaved as a carbon sink of 982 g C m-2 per year over the three years. The winter wheat field took up more CO2 than the rice paddy during the longer growing season, while the daily NEE for wheat and rice were -2.35 and -3.96 g C m-2, respectively. After the grain harvest was subtracted from the NEE, the winter wheat field became a moderately strong carbon sink of 251-334 g C m-2 per season, whereas the rice paddy switched to a weak carbon sink of 107-132 per season.     

Response of carbon dioxide exchange to grazing intensity over typical steppes in a semi-arid area of Inner Mongolia

The eddy covariance technique was used to measure the CO₂ flux over four differently grazed Leymus chinensis steppe ecosystems (ungrazed since 1979 (UG79), winter grazed (WG), continuously grazed (CG), and heavily grazed (HG) sites) during four growing seasons (May to September) from 2005 to 2008, to investigate the response of the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) over grassland ecosystems to meteorological factors and grazing intensity. At UG79, the optimal air temperature for the half-hourly NEE occurred between 17 and 20 °C, which was relatively low for semi-arid grasslands. The saturated NEE (NEE_sat) and temperature sensitivity coefficient (Q ₁₀) of ecosystem respiration (RE) exhibited clear seasonal and interannual variations, which increased with canopy development and the soil water content (SWC, at 5 cm). The total NEE values for the growing seasons from 2005 to 2008 were ?32.0, ?41.5, ?66.1, and ?89.8 g C m^?2, respectively. Both the amounts and distribution of precipitation during the growing season affected the NEE. The effects of grazing on the CO₂ flux increased with the grazing intensity. During the peak growth stage, heavy grazing and winter grazing decreased NEE_sat and gross primary production (45 % for HG and 34 % for WG) due to leaf area removal. Both RE and Q ₁₀ were clearly reduced by heavy grazing. Heavy grazing changed the ecosystem from a CO₂ sink into a CO₂ source, and winter grazing reduced the total CO₂ uptake by 79 %. In the early growing season, there was no difference in the NEE between CG and UG79. In addition to the grazing intensity, the effects of grazing on the CO₂ flux also varied with the vegetation growth stages and SWC.     

Three-year Variations of Water, Energy and CO$_2$ Fluxes of Cropland and Degraded Grassland Surfaces in a Semi-arid Area of Northeastern China

Based on 3 years （2003-05） of the eddy covariance （EC） observations on degraded grassland and cropland surfaces in a semi-arid area of Tongyu （44°25′N, 122°52′E, 184 m a.s.1.）, Northeast China, seasonal and annual variations of water, energy and CO2 fluxes have been investigated. The soil moisture in the thin soil layer （at 0.05, 0.10 and 0.20 m） clearly indicates the pronounced annual wet-dry cycle; the annual cycle is divided into the wet （growing season） and dry seasons （non-growing season）. During the growing season （from May to September）, the sensible and latent heat fluxes showed a linear dependence on the global solar radiation. However, in the non-growing season, the latent heat flux was always less than 50 W m^-2, while the available energy was dissipated as sensible, rather than latent heat flux. During the growing season in 2003-05, the daily average sensible and latent heat fluxes were larger on the cropland surface than on the degraded grassland surface. The cropland ecosystem absorbed more CO2 than the degraded grassland ecosystem in the growing season in 2003-05. The total evapotranspiration on the cropland was more than the total precipitation, while the total evapotranspiration on the degraded grassland was almost the same as the total annual precipitation in the growing season. The soil moisture had a good correlation with the rainfall in the growing season. Precipitation in the growing season is an important factor on the water and carbon budget in the semi-arid area.     

Diurnal and seasonal variations of CO2 fluxes and their climate controlling factors for a subtropical forest in Ningxiang

In this study, the diurnal and seasonal variations of CO2 fluxes in a subtropical mixed evergreen forest in Ningxiang of Hunan Province, part of the East Asian monsoon region, were quantified for the first time. The fluxes were based on eddy covariance measurements from a newly initiated flux tower. The relationship between the CO2 fluxes and climate factors was also analyzed. The results showed that the target ecosystem appeared to be a clear carbon sink in 2013, with integrated net ecosystem CO2exchange(NEE), ecosystem respiration(RE), and gross ecosystem productivity(GEP) of-428.8, 1534.8 and1963.6 g C m-2yr-1, respectively. The net carbon uptake(i.e. the-NEE), RE and GEP showed obvious seasonal variability,and were lower in winter and under drought conditions and higher in the growing season. The minimum NEE occurred on12 June(-7.4 g C m-2d-1), due mainly to strong radiation, adequate moisture, and moderate temperature; while a very low net CO2 uptake occurred in August(9 g C m-2month-1), attributable to extreme summer drought. In addition, the NEE and GEP showed obvious diurnal variability that changed with the seasons. In winter, solar radiation and temperature were the main controlling factors for GEP, while the soil water content and vapor pressure deficit were the controlling factors in summer. Furthermore, the daytime NEE was mainly limited by the water-stress effect under dry and warm atmospheric conditions, rather than by the direct temperature-stress effect.     

通用陆面模式CLM在东亚不同典型下垫面的验证试验

利用野外观测资料,考察了通用陆面过程模式(CLM)对东亚地区3种典型下垫面(高原稀疏植被下垫面、森林、水田)的模拟能力.验证结果表明,在高原稀疏植被下垫面,CLM模拟的地表气温跟实测较为接近,同时CLM还可以较好地模拟出土壤温度随时间和深度的变化特征,但模式模拟的地面温度的幅值跟观测相比显著偏小;对于能量通量而言,除感热通量外,CLM所模拟出的其它能量通量的变化均与观测实况比较一致.对于淮河流域的森林下垫面,CLM所模拟出陆气间的各能量通量均与实测较为接近,尤以夏季(8月份)的模拟性能最好.对于水田下垫面,CLM模式较好地模拟出了各能量通量的主要变化特征及其季节差异,如水田的净辐射以及潜热通量夏季最大,而感热通量则是秋季最大等.     

Climate change alters growing season flux dynamics in mesic grasslands

Changing climate could affect the functioning of grassland ecosystems through variation in climate forcings and by altering the interactions of forcings with ecological processes. Both the short and long-term effects of changing forcings and ecosystem interactions are a critical part of future impacts to ecosystem ecology and hydrology. To explore these interactions and identify possible characteristics of climate change impacts to mesic grasslands, we employ a low-dimensional modeling framework to assess the IPCC A1B scenario projections for the Central Plains of the United States; forcings include increased precipitation variability, increased potential evaporation, and earlier growing season onset. These forcings are also evaluated by simulations of vegetation photosynthetic capacity to explore the seasonal characteristics of the vegetation carbon assimilation response for species at the Konza Prairie in North Central Kansas, USA. The climate change simulations show decreases in mean annual soil moisture and and carbon assimilation and increased variation in water and carbon fluxes during the growing season. Simulations of the vegetation response show increased variation at the species-level instead of at a larger class scale, with important heterogeneity in how individual species respond to climate forcings. Understanding the drivers and relationships behind these ecosystem responses is important for understanding the likely scale of climate change impacts and for exploring the mechanisms shaping growing season dynamics in grassland ecosystems.     

高原季节转换时期大气环流变化特征

利用1961～ 2007年NCEP/NCAR的再分析逐日资料,分析高原主体上空大气环流的季节变化和受到高原影响的东亚大型环流系统的季节变化,以此证明本文得到的“高原普适性划分方法”的合理性.得到的初步结论概括如下：高原主体上空的位势高度、风场、高空温度、降水的季节变化和高原普适性季节划分方法划分的高原四季变化一致,高原南亚高压、副热带高压、副热带西风急流的三个特征指数季节变化和高原普适性季节划分方法划分的高原四季变化一致,这些结论都说明高原普适性季节划分方法划分的高原四季是合理的;风场季节率（500hPa、100hPa）显著区随高度升高向赤道靠近,风场季节率的变化主要和东亚季风的变化有关,大气环流系统季节率的显著说明了大气环流的季节变化,同时也证明了高原普适性季节划分方法的合理性.     

Carbon storage in the grasslands of China based on field measurements of above- and below-ground biomass

Above- and below-ground biomass values for 17 types of grassland communities in China as classified by the Chinese Grasslands Resources Survey were obtained from systematic replicated sampling at 78 sites and from published records from 146 sites. Most of the systematic samples were along a 5,000-km-long transect from Hailar, Inner Mongolia (49°15′N, 119°15′E), to Pulan, Tibet (30°15′N, 81°10′E). Above-ground biomass was separated into stem, leaf, flower and fruit, standing dead matter, and litter. Below-ground biomass was measured in 10-cm soil layers to a depth of 30 cm for herbs and to 50 cm for woody plants. Grassland type mean total biomass carbon densities ranged from 2.400 kg m⁻² for swamp to 0.149 kg m⁻² for alpine desert grasslands. Ratios of below- to above-ground carbon density varied widely from 0.99 for tropical tussock grassland to 52.28 for alpine meadow. Most below-ground biomass was in the 0–10 cm soil depth layer and there were large differences between grassland types in the proportions of living and dead matter and stem and leaf. Differences between grassland types in the amount and allocation of biomass showed patterns related to environments, especially aridity gradients. Comparisons of our estimates with other studies indicated that above-ground biomass, particularly forage-yield biomass, is a poor predictor of total vegetation carbon density. Our estimate for total carbon storage in the biomass of the grasslands of China was 3.32 Pg C, with 56.4% contained in the grasslands of the Tibet-Qinghai plateau and 17.9% in the northern temperate grasslands. The need for further standardized and systematic measurements of vegetation biomass to validate global carbon cycles is emphasised.     

1982~1999年中国地区叶面积指数变化及其与气候变化的关系

利用1982～1999年AVHRR Pathfinder卫星遥感观测的植被叶面积指数（leaf area index,LAI）资料和中国730个气象台站的温度、降水观测资料,研究了中国不同地区（东北地区、华北地区、长江流域、华南地区和西南地区）LAI的季节、生长季和年变化,及其与气候变化（温度、降水）的关系。结果表明,在中国大部分地区,年平均LAI和生长季平均LAI均是增加的。由于区域和季节气候的差异,LAI变化趋势具有明显的空间和季节非均一性。从区域平均的角度来看,不同地区年和生长季平均LAI都有增加趋势,并且在华南地区增加最快。因而,在全球变化背景下,华南地区可能是潜在的碳汇。在季节尺度上,各地区区域平均LAI基本上都是增加的,并且都在春季增加最快。温度变化是LAI变化的主要原因。但是人类活动如农业活动、城市化等对华北平原、长江三角洲和珠江三角洲等地区LAI变化的作用不容忽视。     

典型温带针阔叶混交林碳收支对温度的响应特征

森林生态系统是一个庞大的碳储备系统,在当前气候变暖条件下,温度变化会对森林生态系统的碳收支过程产生重要影响。该文选择长白山温带针阔混交林森林生态系统（CBS）作为研究对象,利用多年通量及小气候观测资料分析该生态系统碳收支过程对温度的响应特征,结果显示该温带森林碳交换的季节变化特征十分明显。生态系统总初级生产力GPP、生态系统呼吸R_e和净生态系统碳交换NEE在2003—2008年的月平均变化显示,碳收支3个组分最大值均出现在夏季,GPP最大值出现在7月,R_e最大值主要出现在8月,NEE负方向的最大值主要出现在6月或7月,表现为碳吸收。在日尺度和月尺度对温度的响应上,GPP和R_e都是随温度（气温和5 cm土壤温度）呈显著的指数升高形式。在日尺度上和月尺度上, NEE对气温的响应皆是分段线性形式,先是随气温的上升而正向增大,表现为碳排放;当超过临界温度,随气温的继续上升而负值增大,表现为碳吸收。根据温度、GPP、R_e以及NEE的季节的变化,每年达到最大的GPP、R_e以及NEE的最适温度均不同,这表明了在气温变化的背景下,生态系统的最适温度也在随之改变,也表明了不考虑其它因素的影响,在气候变暖的背景下,长白山针阔混交林森林生态系统的GPP、R_e随气温的升高增大,而NEE随气温的升高而减小。     

CO2 Flux Estimation by Different Regression Methods from an Alpine Meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

CO2 efflux was estimated using different regression methods in static chamber observation from an alpine meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The CO2 efflux showed a seasonal pattern, with the maximun flux occurring in the middle of July. The temperature sensitivity of CO2 efflux (Q10> was 3.9, which was at the high end of the range of global values. CO2 emissions calculated by linear and nonlinear regression were significantly different (p<0.05). Compared with the linear regression, CO2 emissions calculated by exponential regression and quadratic regression were 12.7% and 11.2% larger, respectively. However, there were no significant differences in temperature sensitivity values estimated by the three methods. In the entire growing season, the CO2 efflux estimated by linear regression may be underestimated by up to 25% compared to the real CO2 efflux. Consequently, great caution should be taken when using published flux data obtained by linear regression of static chamber observations to estimate the regional CO2 flux in alpine meadows on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.     

多年冻土对青藏高原草地生态承载力的贡献研究

草地生态系统是一个复杂的社会、经济、生态系统,多年冻土作为高寒草地生态系统结构和功能维系的重要因素,是客观刻画高寒草地生态承载力不容忽视的重要方面。文中采用结构动力学方法,从草地质量、草地干预、草地潜力、草地压力4个维度建立高寒草地生态承载力结构动力学模型,分析青藏高原多年冻土区草地生态承载力的变化以及主要结构要素,量化多年冻土变化对青藏高原高寒草地生态承载力的贡献率,结果表明：(1)多年冻土区草地生态承载力呈增加趋势,尤其是1998年以后上升显著,这主要归因于草地生长季节降水增加、气温升高、净初级生产力增幅驱动以及生态保护工程建设的共同作用。(2)多年冻土活动层厚度变化与草地生态承载力呈负相关,多年冻土活动层厚度对草地生态承载力的贡献率约为10%,即多年冻土活动层厚度每增加1个单位,将导致草地生态承载力下降0.1个单位。由于青藏高原空间差异显著,加之气候变化的不确定性,这一贡献水平只是一个粗略的参照值。     

Recent land cover changes on the Tibetan Plateau: a review

This paper reviews the land cover changes on the Tibetan Plateau during the last 50 years partly caused by natural climate change and, more importantly, influenced by human activities. Recent warming trends on the plateau directly influence the permafrost and snow melting and will impact on the local ecosystem greatly. Human activities increased rapidly on the plateau during the last half century and have significant impacts on land use. Significant land cover changes on the Tibetan Plateau include permafrost and grassland degradation, urbanization, deforestation and desertification. These changes not only impact on local climate and environment, but also have important hydrological implications for the rivers which originate from the plateau. The most noticeable disasters include the flooding at the upper reaches of Yangtze River and droughts along the middle and lower reaches of Yellow River. Future possible land cover changes under future global climate warming are important but hard to assess due to the deficits of global climate model in this topographically complex area. Integrated investigation of climate and ecosystems, including human-beings, are highly recommended for future studies.     

中国半干旱区草甸草原和典型草原碳通量日变化特征

半干旱草原碳收支对陆地生态系统碳源汇功能变化具有重要影响。本文基于通榆草甸草原站2011～2017年和毛登典型草原站2013~2017年涡动相关法观测数据,分析了生长季碳通量日变化特征,研究了碳通量日变化过程对主要环境因子的响应。结果表明:两处草原7月碳吸收活动最强,草甸草原生长季各月总初级生产力（gross primary production, GPP）、生态系统呼吸（ecosystem respiration, R_e）和净碳交换量（net ecosystem exchange, NEE）的峰值均高于典型草原。NEE的日变化以单峰型为主,但7月、8月饱和水汽压差较高时,GPP在正午前后降低,引起NEE的双峰型日变化。光合有效辐射是草甸草原NEE日变化的主导因子,而在典型草原,浅层土壤含水量（5 cm）也主导了NEE日变化。水分亏缺使草原碳交换速率显著降低,草甸草原固碳速率对水分亏缺的敏感性强于典型草原。同时,水分亏缺也改变了GPP、R_e和NEE对温度和光合有效辐射的响应关系。     

2001—2010年青藏高原干湿格局及其影响因素分析

基于RFE2.0模型和Penman-Monteith模型,采用潜在蒸散降水比分析了2001—2010年青藏高原生长季(5—9月)干湿气候的时空变化格局,并对其影响因素进行了探讨。结果表明:(1)干旱和半干旱区占整个青藏高原区域的67%,主要集中在高原中部及中部以北;(2)2001—2010年有25%的区域在逐渐变干,北部干旱程度总体上在逐渐减轻,南部及东南部有变干倾向;(3)降水是导致高原区域干湿气候空间格局差异的主要因素,高原干湿气候对潜在蒸散变化的敏感性最强。     

青藏高原四季划分方法探讨

利用中国气象局国家气象信息中心提供的青藏高原60个测站19612007年逐日气温资料, 分析常用的四季划分方法在高原的适用性, 指出各种四季划分方法的不足和局限, 并根据四季持续时间的合理性、物候特征、海拔高度、气候 (温度) 分布特征等因素提出了针对不同的生产、生活目的而建立的新四季划分方法。探讨认为: (1) 根据高原物候特征和气温相结合的方式得到的“物候四季划分方法”即“4℃-12℃-10℃-1℃”对高原农牧业尤为适合; (2) “海拔季节划分方法”对高原旅游和人们衣着尤为适合, 海拔季节划分方法把高原分成二个区:海拔4000m以上四季划分方法为“5℃-12℃-12℃-5℃”, 4000m以下四季划分方法为“5℃-15℃-15℃-5℃;” (3) “生活季节划分方法”对高原不同区域的生产生活尤为适合, 生活季节划分方法将高原分为三个区:Ⅰ区四季划分方法为“6℃-16℃-16℃-6℃”, Ⅱ区四季划分方法为“5℃-12℃-12℃-5℃”, Ⅲ区四季划分方法“7℃-7℃”划分春冬和秋冬, 不存在夏季。最后, 综合以上各种方法的优缺点, 初步定义“高原普适季节划分方法”即“5℃-15℃-15℃-5℃”为高原总体的四季划分方法, 对高原整体的国民经济和政府活动、旅游、人们的衣着、生活生产、季节类产品的销售具有总体的指导意义。      

西藏藏北高原典型植被生长对气候要素变化的响应

选取西藏藏北高原西部高寒草原植被、中部高寒草甸植被及东南部高寒灌丛草甸植被 3 种藏北地区最典型的植被类型, 结合临近 3 个气象观测站的资料, 分析这 3 种典型植被类型地区 1999—2001 年旬平均气温、旬总降水量和 SPOT VEGETATION 卫星 10 d 最大值合成归一化植被指数 (NDVI) 变化特征以及 3 种典型植被基于 SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 的生长变化对旬平均气温和旬总降水量两个主要气候要素变化的响应关系。 结果表明: 藏北地区降水资源的空间分布特点是东南部向西北部逐渐减少, 气温则由南向北逐渐递减, 与降水资源分布相反, 蒸发量西部高, 东部低; SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 能够较为准确地反映 3 种典型植被生长变化特征, 所反映的植被返青期和枯黄期等重要植被生长阶段与由积温计算的植被生长特征基本一致; 藏北地区基于 SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 的植被生长变化与气温的相关系数明显高于与降水的相关系数 , 其中以那曲为代表的高寒草甸植被的 NDVI 与旬气温和旬降水总量的相关系数最大, 分别为 0.81 和 0.68 , 表明藏北地区由于海拔高, 气候寒冷, 气温对该地区植被生长的影响明显高于降水的影响, 即该地区植被生长变化对气温的响应程度明显高于对降水的响应程度 , 是植被生长的限制性因素; 不同植被类型对气温和降水两个要素的响应程度大小依次是高寒草甸、高寒灌丛草甸和高寒草原。     

Accelerated climate change and its potential impact on Yak herding livelihoods in the eastern Tibetan plateau

The Tibetan Plateau has experienced rapid warming like most other alpine regions. Regional assessments show rates of warming comparable with the arctic region and decreasing Asian summer monsoons. We used meteorological station daily precipitation and daily maximum and minimum temperature data from 80 stations in the eastern Tibetan Plateau of southwest China to calculate local variation in the rates and seasonality of change over the last half century (1960–2008). Daily low temperatures during the growing season have increased greatly over the last 24 years (1984–2008). In sites of markedly increased warming (e.g., Deqin, Yunnan and Mangya, Qinghai), daily and growing season daily high temperatures have increased at a rate above 5 °C/100 years. In Deqin, precipitation prior to the 1980s fell as snow whereas in recent decades it has shifted to rain during March and April. These shifts to early spring rains are likely to affect plant communities. Animals like yaks adapted to cold climates are also expected to show impacts with these rising temperatures. This region deserves further investigation to determine how these shifts in climate are affecting local biodiversity and livelihoods.     

Temperature and snow-melt controls on interannual variability in carbon exchange in the high Arctic

Summary Net Ecosystem CO₂ Exchange (NEE) was studied during the summer season (June–August) at a high Arctic heath ecosystem for 5 years in Zackenberg, NE Greenland. Integrated over the 80 day summer season, the heath is presently a sink ranging from −1.4 g C m⁻² in 1997 to −23.3 g C m⁻² in 2003. The results indicate that photosynthesis might be more variable than ecosystem respiration on the seasonal timescale. The years focused on in this paper differ climatically, which is reflected in the measured fluxes. The environmental conditions during the five years strongly indicated that time of snow-melt and air temperature during the growing season are closely related to the interannual variation in the measured fluxes of CO₂ at the heath. Our estimates suggest that net ecosystem CO₂ uptake is enhanced by 0.16 g C m⁻² per increase in growing degree-days during the period of growth. This study emphasises that increased summer time air temperatures are favourable for this particular ecosystem in terms of carbon accumulation.