A new brachyrostran with hypertrophied axial structures reveals an unexpected radiation of latest Cretaceous abelisaurids

A well preserved skeleton of a new abelisaurid is reported here. The holotype of Viavenator exxoni was found in the outcrops of the Bajo de la Carpa Formation (Santonian, Upper Cretaceous), northwestern Patagonia, Argentina. This new taxon belongs to the South American clade of abelisaurids, the brachyrostrans. The current phylogenetic analysis places it as the basalmost member of a new clade of derived brachyrostrans, named Furileusauria, characterized by distinctive cranial, axial and appendicular anatomical features. The Santonian age of Viavenator allows filling the stratigraphic gap exhibited between the basal brachyrostrans of Cenomanian–Turonian age, and the derived forms from the Campanian-Maastrichtian. The evolution of abelisaurids during the Late Cretaceous, faunal replacements, and the adaptive radiation that occurred during that period of time in South America are discussed.     

New abelisaurid remains from the Anacleto Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Patagonia,Argentina

New theropod remains with abelisaurid affinities from the Upper Cretaceous (Anacleto Formation, lower Campanian), NW Patagonia, Argentina, are here described. The specimen (MPCN-PV 69) consists of a partial premaxilla, fragmentary vertebrae, proximal portion of both humeri, distal portion of the pubis, and an incomplete pedal ungual. Characters linking with Abelisauridae are a premaxilla with a subquadrangular body, externally ornamented, and paradental plates with a striated surface; and humerus with bulbous proximal head, conical internal tuberosity, and reduced greater tubercle. The humerus is similar to those of Carnotaurus and Aucasaurus, due to the presence of a bulbous head and a discontinuity between the head and the internal tuberosity, but also differs from both taxa in the more distal location of the greater tubercle with respect to the internal tuberosity. Aucasaurus also comes from Anacleto Formation, but differences in the humeri suggest that MPCN-PV 69 is a different taxon. The phylogenetic analysis performed supports the affiliation to Abelisauridae, but fails to determinate a more precise relationship with others abelisaurids. However, a majority rule consensus of the analysis shows a position within Brachyrostra. Despite being fragmentary, MPCN-PV 69 probably represents a new abelisaurid from the Anacleto Formation, thus increasing the knowledge and diversity of Late Cretaceous South American abelisaurids.     

First ornithopod remains from the Bajo de la Carpa Formation (Santonian,Upper Cretaceous), northern Patagonia,Argentina

In the last decades, the Argentinian ornithopod record has been increased with new and diverse bone remains found along all the Upper Cretaceous. Most of them are very incomplete and represent taxa of different size. As result, the studies about the palaeobiodiversity of the Ornithopoda clade in South America are complex. In this paper, new postcranial remains of an indeterminate medium-sized ornithopod from the Santonian Bajo de la Carpa Formation (Rincón de los Sauces, Neuquén province) are presented. They present diagnostic features of the Ornithopoda clade, and several characters that relate them with other Argentinian ornithopods, especially with the medium-sized members of the Elasmaria clade sensu Calvo et al. (2007) (Macrogryphosaurus and Talenkauen). The postcranial material allows to identificate at least three different ontogenetic stages: adult, subadult more immature and subadult. These bones are the first record of Ornithopoda for the Bajo de la Carpa Formation and one of the very scarce Santonian records of this clade in South America. The diversity of the Late Cretaceous South American ornithopods presents two clear distributions: the Cenomanian-Santonian was characterized by small and medium euiguanodonts and elasmarian; and the Campanian–Maastrichtian by the medium sized elasmarian and large sized hadrosaurids.     

Small-sized abelisaurid (Theropoda: Ceratosauria) remains from the Upper Cretaceous of northwest Patagonia,Argentina

A new abelisaurid theropod from the Cenomanian of Candeleros Formation (Neuquén Province, NW Patagonia, Argentina) is described. It includes an isolated frontal, partial pelvis, two fused sacral centra, femoral shaft, rib fragments, partial metatarsal II and shaft of metatarsal III. A paleohistological analysis shows that MMCh-PV 69 was somatically mature at time of death. The prevalence of relatively ordered intrinsic fibers in the primary bone indicates a relatively lower growth rate of MMCh-PV 69 compared with other abelisauroids, such as Aucasaurus garridoi. Phylogenetic analysis found MMCh-PV 69 as a basal abelisaurid, sister group of the node formed by Majungasaurinae and Brachyrostra. We estimated the body mass of MMCh-PV 69 in 240 kg, which makes it one of the smallest abelisaurids recorded. This new form adds to the extensive theropod fauna of the Candeleros Formation, probably the most diverse association of meat-eating dinosaurs recorded in a Cretaceous Formation from South America.     

New materials of lithostrotian titanosaurs (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of central Patagonia

Continental Cretaceous deposits exposed in central Patagonia, Argentina, preserve a rich and important record of titanosaurian evolution that spans the entire Upper Cretaceous. Recently, a new lithostragraphic unit, the Lago Colhué Huapi Formation (Coniacian – Maastrichtian), was located in the Golfo San Jorge Basin. Here, we describe new titanosaurian sauropod material from that formation (UNPSJB-Pv 1051). The material consists of a partially articulated left hind limb and disarticulated but associated skeletal elements. They are confidently referred to Titanosauria, and within that clade, to Lithostrotia, probably occupying a derived position. We interpret the bone concentration as an assemblage of hydraulic origin deposited in a fluvial channel. This new material begins the incipient fossil record of the Lago Colhué Huapi Formation, thereby also increasing the titanosaurian diversity of the latest Cretaceous. Additionally, the new titanosaurian enhances evidence in support of strong faunal similarities among the Allen and Marilia formations, chronological equivalents in the Cretaceous of South America. Furthermore, the Lago Colhué Huapi specimen adds to the Late Cretaceous record of Titanosauria and augments our knowledge of central Patagonian terrestrial vertebrate assemblages during this interval.     

Tectonic control of accommodation space and sediment supply within the Mata Amarilla Formation (lower Upper Cretaceous) Patagonia,Argentina

The Mata Amarilla Formation dates from the early Upper Cretaceous and was deposited during a transition in tectonic regime from the extensional Rocas Verdes Basin to the Austral Foreland Basin. Detailed sedimentological logs and architectural parameters were used to define 13 facies associations. The distribution of facies associations and associated variations in fluvial architecture have enabled large‐scale changes in accommodation space/sediment supply ratios (A/S ratio) to be defined for the three component sections of the Mata Amarilla Formation. The lower and upper sections are characterized by a high A/S ratio, whereas the middle section corresponds to a low A/S ratio. In the western part of the study area, small‐scale variations in the A/S ratio were recognized in the middle section. The strong west to east trend in evolution of the fluvial systems coincides with the direction of propagation of the Patagonian fold and thrust belt, which is located to the west of the study area. Intervals of high A/S ratio (i.e. lower and upper sections) are interpreted to have developed during periods of increased loading by the fold and thrust belt caused by tectonic uplift. In contrast, intervals of low A/S ratio (i.e. middle section) were developed during periods of tectonic quiescence. This article suggests that the large‐scale variations in A/S ratios are related to different rates of migration and growth of the Patagonian fold and thrust belt, whereas the small‐scale variation occurred in response to specific periods of thrusting and folding in the Patagonian fold and thrust belt (i.e. local loads). This field example of the effects of different scales of variation in A/S ratios across the Austral Foreland Basin could be used to recognize similar tectonically forced variations in stratigraphic architecture in other foreland basins throughout the world, as well as to understand the response of fluvial systems to such changes.     

Discovery of the largest pterosaur from South America

A giant humerus (450 mm total length) belonging to one of the largest pterosaur recorded in South America is described. The specimen (UNCUYO-LD 350) was discovered in the Upper Cretaceous (upper Coniacian – lower Santonian) Plottier Formation of the Mendoza Province, northern Neuquén Basin, Argentina. It was found associated with a smaller pterosaur specimen represented by around thirty postcranial bones. The specimen is assigned to Tapejaroidea and show characters of both Tapejaridae and Azhdarchidae. Based on comparisions with other Azdharchidae species, a wingspan of 9.1 m is estimated for UNCUYO-LD 350, showing that giant pterosaurs were present in South America during the Upper Cretaceous.     

Linderochelys rinconensis (Testudines: Pan-Chelidae) from the Upper Cretaceous of northern Patagonia: New insights from shell bone histology,morphology and diagenetic implications

The panchelid turtle Linderochelys rinconensis de la Fuente, Calvo and González Riga, 2007 was described on the basis of several postcranial elements from the Rio Neuquén Subgroup of Loma del Lindero site, near Rincon de los Sauces (Neuquén, Argentina). New preparation of the type material revealed new parts of the animal, including cervical vertebrae, parts of the carapace and a right tibia. The study of the newly recovered material herein improves our knowledge of the macroanatomy of this taxon. The first costal shows an axillary buttress similar to Australasian chelids and the cervical vertebrae morphology suggests a short-necked chelid condition. The re-examination of the type material of Linderochelys and the discovery of new material allowed new studies on microanatomy, osteohistology and diagenesis. Osteohistology suggests some similarities with Patagonian Cretaceous and Palaeocene Yaminuechelys, based on the presence of parallel-fibred bone in the external cortex and a much thinner internal cortex. Paleoecological studies on the proportions of forelimbs and microanatomy point towards aquatic or semi-aquatic habits, closely related to the condition seen in some extant South American chelids, such as Phrynops hilarii, Phrynops geoffroanus, and Mesoclemmys gibba. The fossil-diagenetic processes inferred substitution, fracturing, plastic deformation and permineralization events. Combined analyses through scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry and petrographic studies revealed the substitution of hydroxyapatite by francolite. Permineralization stages include infilling of vascular canals, trabeculae and fractures with iron oxides and carbonate minerals during their burial history.     

黑龙江三江盆地晚白垩世海浪组孢粉组合

依据东基三井1 226. 0～1 538. 0 m井段的孢粉鉴定结果,结合前人资料,首次将该井段孢粉组合命名为Cyathidites-Taxodiaceaepolleni-Aquilapollenites组合。其组合特征为:裸子植物花粉占48. 10%～78. 58%,蕨类孢子占2. 44%～34. 18%,被子植物花粉占0%～28. 26%;蕨类孢子中Cyathidites百分含量最高(0. 79%～37. 50%),其次是Cicatricosisporites (0%～12. 50%)和Leiotriletes (0%～10. 00%),重要分子有Appendicisporites、Schizaeoisporites、Lygodiumsporites和Lygodioisporites;裸子植物花粉中Inaperturopllenites的百分含量最高(11. 29%～38. 83%),其次是Taxodiaceaepollenites (12. 66%～28. 57%),重要分子有Tsugaepollenites、Parcisporites、Parvisaccites、Ephedripites和Classopollis等;被子植物花粉中Tricolpites的百分含量最高(0%～16. 46%),其次是Betulaepollenites (0%～15. 22%),含量较高的还有Momipites和Tricolporopollenites,重要分子有Aquilapollenites、Fibulapollis和Proteacidites等。该组合可以与松辽盆地嫩江组孢粉组合对比,地质时代为晚白垩世Santonian-Campanian期。鉴于宁安市南团子山、高家等露头区海浪组所产Estherites mitsuishii、E. liuxinensis、Tylestheria cf. shanhoensis、Halysestheria yui、Calestherites sp.和Brachygrapta? sp.等叶肢介化石群,系松辽盆地嫩江组常见分子,故将东基三井1 226. 0～1 538. 0 m井段划归为海浪组,废弃"七星河组"一名。     

Sedimentology and palynology of the Calafate Formation (Maastrichtian), Austral Basin, Southern Patagonia, Argentina

The Calafate Formation crops out in south-western Santa Cruz Province, Argentina, and displays a stacking of asymmetrical coarsening–fining-upward cycles. These cycles are interpreted as the product of short-lived transgressive-regressive events in which the coarsening upward part represents sedimentary aggradation with a stable or decreasing sea level. Sedimentological and palynological analyses indicate nearshore marine conditions. Even though the existence of an estuary or incised valley cannot be determined, this is the most probable palaeogeographic model. Based on dinoflagellate cysts, the base of the section is considered to be not older than Maastrichtian. The presence of the oyster Ambigostrea clarae (Ihering) occurring together with the dinoflagellate cyst species Manumiella druggii (Stover) Bujak and Davies and Eisenackia circumtabulata Drugg in the middle part of the section indicates an age no older than late Maastrichtian. According to sedimentological data, deposits representing the Cretaceous–Palaeogene transition would have been eroded, which is confirmed by the presence of Grapnelispora loncochensis Papú. This megaspore is a consistent component of the Maastrichtian assemblages from Patagonia.     

Early Callovian ingression in southwestern Gondwana. Palaeoenvironmental evolution of the carbonate ramp (Calabozo Formation) in southwestern Mendoza,Neuquen basin,Argentina

The carbonatic sequence of the Calabozo Formation (Lower Callovian) developed in southwestern Gondwana, within the northern area of the Neuquén basin, and is widespread in thin isolated outcrops in southwestern Mendoza province, Argentina. This paper describes the facies, microfacies and geochemical-isotopic analysis carried out in five studied localities, which allowed to define the paleoenvironmental conditions of a homoclinal shallow ramp model, highly influenced by sea level fluctuations, where outer, mid and inner ramp subenvironments were identified. The outer ramp subenvironment was only recognized in the south of the depocenter and is characterized by proximal outer ramp facies with shale levels and interbedded mudstone and packstone layers. The mid ramp subenvironment is formed by low energy facies (wackestone) affected by storms (packstones, grainstones and floatstones). The inner ramp subenvironment is the most predominant and is characterized by tidal flat facies (wackestones, packstones and grainstones) over which a complex of shoals (grainstones and packstones) dissected by tidal channels (packstone, grainstones and floatstones) developed. In the north area, protected environment facies were recorded (bioturbated wackestones and packstones). The vertical distribution of facies indicates that the paleoenvironmental evolution of the Calabozo Formation results from a highstand stage in the depocenter, culminating in a supratidal environment, with stromatolitic levels interbedded with anhydrite originated under restricted water circulation conditions due to a progressive isolation of the basin. δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values of the carbonates of the Calabozo Formation suggest an isotopic signature influenced by local palaeoenvironmental parameters and diagenetic overprints. The δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O oscillations between the carbonates of the different studied sections are related with lateral facies variations within the carbonate ramp accompanied with dissimilar reactivities in relation to diagenetic fluids. The δ¹⁸O values of all sections exhibit a rather broad scatter which may be attributed to diagenesis and recrystallisation while the carbon isotopic composition has been less affected by those processes. Carbon isotope system has best retained the primary isotopic signal and δ¹³C values (0–3.9‰) are within the Callovian isotope range. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of the bulk carbonates of El Plomo creek, La Vaina creek and Potimalal River sections are in agreement with the Callovian seawater Sr-isotope curve.     

Tidally dominated, rimmed-shelf facies of the Picún Leufú Formation (Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary) in southwest Gondwana, Neuquén Basin, Argentina

A palaeoenvironmental model for the Picún Leufú Formation (Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary), which crops out in the Neuquén Basin, Argentina, on the southwestern margin of Gondwana, is presented in this paper for the first time. Detailed stratigraphic sections exposed along National Road 40 where it crosses the Picún Leufú Creek (type locality) and in the Cerrito Caracoles area, were examined and sampled. Based on a combination of the sedimentological data obtained (facies/microfacies analysis) and the relationship between benthic macrofaunas and their taphonomic attributes, it is concluded that the formation reflects a tidally dominated, rimmed-shelf setting characterized by prograding bars dissected by channels and thick lagoonal facies with shoal developments. In the Cerrito Caracoles area, where only the basal part of the formation is exposed, it is interpreted to have been deposited in a shallow subtidal marine environment in which shelf margin facies with patch reefs have been recognized.     

北美西部内陆海盆Niobrara组的钙质超微化石及其环境意义——Ⅱ：古环境研究

沉积于北美西部白垩纪内陆海盆的Niobrara组，是一套以白垩，白垩质灰岩，以及钙质页岩为主的海相沉积，其中自垩的主要组分为颗石藻及其它钙质超微化石。通过对Kansas州西部和South Dakota州东部四条剖面中Niobrara组的岩性，沉积物厚度，及钙质超微化石的研究，证明北美西部内陆海盆的沉积环境及水体温度在Niobrara组沉积时期因地而异。在Niobrara组沉积初期，海盆内的水体温度为北冷南暖，其后，至少在位于Kansas西部海域的海水温度呈与时逐渐降低趋势。钙质超微化石有关属种在盆地内的分布差异，进一步说明海水变冷的直接原因源自北极海域水体的缓慢南浸。     

北美西部内陆海盆Niobrara组的钙质超微化石及其环境意义——Ⅰ：钙质超微化石及其分带

北美西部内陆海盆上白垩统Niobrara组中的钙质超微化石十分丰富,且多保存良好,呈现典型的晚白垩世远洋钙质超微化石组合面貌,经系统鉴定,计有60属100余种和亚种。为适应不同的环境,Kansas西部和South Dakota东部的钙质超微化石组合面貌稍有不同。经与白垩纪颗石藻化石带对比,可将Kansas西部的Niobrara组划分为6个化石带(CC13～CC18)和8个亚带,其中,根据本文研究地区的化石序列,CC15和CC16带被进一步划分。根据与同一剖面所建立的无脊椎动物化石带对比,钙质超微化石CC17带的时代被重新厘定,即该带应始于中Santonian的晚期,结束于晚Santonian的早期,并据此将Santoniatr／Campanian的界线划在CC18带之内。     

河南栾川晚白垩世秋扒组甲龙类化石的发现及意义

报道了河南省栾川县秋扒乡晚白垩世秋扒组发现的甲龙类化石。化石包括单枚牙齿、一几乎完整的背椎体、不完整的肋骨和坐骨。虽然化石材料少,难以确立属种,但是这是除中原龙产地外,中原地区发现的第二个甲龙类化石点。该化石的发现为研究甲龙类的迁徙及其古地理分布特点提供了重要信息。     

Reappraisal of Fresnosaurus drescheri (Plesiosauria; Elasmosauridae) from the Maastrichtian Moreno Formation,California, USA

The elasmosaurid Fresnosaurus drescheri, Welles from the contact between the Tierra Loma/Marca members of the Moreno Formation (Maastrichtian), California, USA is reviewed. Most of the features included in Welles's original diagnosis are considered related only to the juvenile ontogenetic stage of the holotype and only specimen. The new diagnosis is based on diagnostic characters of the ilia, including long rectangular shaped sacral facets located in the dorsal part of the shaft, two gentle knobs in the shafts and unexpanded dorsal end. Additional material from the Moreno Formation (numbered under the same number as the F. drescheri holotype but not mentioned by Welles and therefore considered part of a different specimen) are described for the first time. The latter are referred to the aristonectine, being the first evidence of aristonectines from the North Hemisphere.     

Sedimentology,stratigraphy and palynological occurrences of the late Cretaceous Erlian Formation,Erlian Basin,Inner Mongolia,People's Republic of China

The Erlian Basin is one of the non-marine Cretaceous basins of north-east China that developed during the late Mesozoic continental extension in eastern Asia. This basin experienced two major tectonic events: (i) a syn-rift stage that was dominated by a fluvial–lacustrine depositional environment and (ii) a post-rift stage that was dominated by a fluvial environment. A new sedimentological study performed on Erlian Formation drill cores has led to the determination of an architectural model and to the subsequent characterisation of the stratigraphic evolution of this sedimentary unit during the late Cretaceous. The palynological occurrences that were identified in samples provided a possible stratigraphical age for the Erlian Formation.Sediments of the Erlian Formation occur at the top of the Cretaceous stratigraphic column of the Erlian Basin and were deposited during the post-rift stage. Facies architecture and the ideal succession of facies that were identified for this formation exhibit two different members, both dominated by a fluvial depositional environment: (i) the lower member, which is dominated by channels of a braided river system and (ii) the upper member, which is dominated by overbank deposits. The lower member expresses a tectonically induced uplift as indicated by channels clustering under negative accommodation, whereas a period of stratigraphic base-level rise that is associated with an increase of accommodation is identified in the upper member. Therefore the Erlian Formation highlights an alternation of short uplifts that were dominated by braided fluvial channel deposits with periods of stratigraphic base-level rise that were dominated by overbank deposits. This sedimentological architecture has significant metallogenic implications for the origin of confined permeable sandstone layers, which represent adequate host-rocks for roll front-type uranium deposits.The palynological assemblage Exesipollenites, Ulmipollenites/Ulmoideipites, Buttinia and Momipites that were recognised in two samples of the Erlian Formation has revealed a post-late Campanian age therefore more likely indicating a late Cretaceous age of deposition for the sediments of the Erlian Formation.     

The role of tidal,wave and river currents in the evolution of mixed‐energy deltas: Example from the Lajas Formation (Argentina)

Many modern deltas show complex morphologies and architectures related to the interplay of river, wave and tidal currents. However, methods for extracting the signature of the individual processes from the stratigraphic architecture are poorly developed. Through an analysis of facies, palaeocurrents and stratigraphic stacking patterns in the Jurassic Lajas Formation, this paper: (i) separates the signals of wave, tide and river currents; (ii) illustrates the result of strong tidal reworking in the distal reaches of deltaic systems; and (iii) discusses the implications of this reworking for the evolution of mixed‐energy systems and their reservoir heterogeneities. The Lajas Formation, a sand‐rich, shallow‐marine, mixed‐energy deltaic system in the Neuquén Basin of Argentina, previously defined as a tide‐dominated system, presents an exceptional example of process variability at different scales. Tidal signals are predominantly located in the delta front, the subaqueous platform and the distributary channel deposits. Tidal currents vigorously reworked the delta front during transgressions, producing intensely cross‐stratified, sheet‐like, sandstone units. In the subaqueous platform, described for the first time in an ancient outcrop example, the tidal reworking was confined within subtidal channels. The intensive tidal reworking in the distal reaches of the regressive delta front could not have been predicted from knowledge of the coeval proximal reaches of the regressive delta front. The wave signals occur mainly in the shelf or shoreface deposits. The fluvial signals increase in abundance proximally but are always mixed with the other processes. The Lajas system is an unusual clean‐water (i.e. very little mud is present in the system), sand‐rich deltaic system, very different from the majority of mud‐rich, modern tide‐influenced examples. The sand‐rich character is a combination of source proximity, syndepositional tectonic activity and strong tidal‐current reworking, which produced amalgamated sandstone bodies in the delta‐front area, and a final stratigraphic record very different from the simple coarsening‐upward trends of river‐dominated and wave‐dominated delta fronts.     

江西弋阳晚白垩世塘边组风成砂岩碎屑锆石U-Pb定年及其物源意义

赣东北信江盆地晚白垩世圭峰群塘边组以发育大型高角度交错层理的风成砂岩为特征,总体为干旱气候条件下沙漠沉积环境的产物。该地区所采砂岩样品为紫红色中-细粒长石石英砂岩,碎屑颗粒主要包括石英、长石、云母和岩屑,多呈次圆状,分选性较好。利用碎屑锆石LA-ICP-MS测年法,对塘边组风成砂岩进行U-Pb同位素定年,分析物源。碎屑锆石颗粒大多数大于100μm,Th/U值为0.1～2.1,且大部分锆石内部具有清晰的振荡环带结构,表明多数为岩浆锆石。~(206)Pb/~(238)U年龄加权平均值为141.4±1.2Ma。锆石U-Pb年龄主要集中于5个年龄段,分别是137～170Ma、431～506Ma、798～1172Ma、1268～2493Ma、2501～3488Ma。这些主要年龄区间与中国东南地区已知的岩浆事件对应,分别为燕山运动、加里东运动、晋宁运动、吕梁运动。其中,燕山期酸性火山-侵入杂岩提供了主要物源。结合风成砂岩交错层理反映的古风向数据,认为弋阳塘边组碎屑物质主要来自盆地北西部的九岭地区及北东部地区。     

Thermochronological constraints of the exhumation and uplift of the Sierra de Pie de Palo,NW Argentina

The Sierra de Pie de Palo located between 67°30′–68°30′ W and 31°00′–32°00′ S in the Argentine Western Sierras Pampeanas in Argentina is a distinct basement range, which lacks thermochronological data deciphering its exhumation and uplift history below 200 °C. Integrated cooling histories constrained by apatite fission-track data as well as (U–Th)/He measurements of zircon and apatite reveal that the structural evolution of this mountain range commenced during the Late Paleozoic and was mainly controlled by tectonically triggered erosion. Following further erosional controlled exhumation in a more or less extensional regime during the Mesozoic, the modern topography was generated by denudation in the Paleogene during the early stage of the Andean deformation, whereupon deformation propagated towards the west since the Late Mesozoic to Paleogene. This evolution is characterised by a total of 3.7–4.2 km vertical rock uplift and by 1.7–2.2 km exhumation with a rate of 0.03–0.04 mm/a within the Sierra de Pie de Palo since ca. 60 Ma. Onset of uplift of peak level is also referred to that time resulting in a less Pliocene amount of uplift than previously assumed.