Lithological composition of island-arc complexes in the Russian Far East

The results of study of geochemistry of terrigenous rocks from the contrast (in structure) Cretaceous-Paleogene complexes of Sikhote Alin and Kamchatka are summarized. The data obtained were interpreted based on comparison with the geochemical composition of recent and ancient sediments accumulated in the well-known geodynamic settings. It is shown that the chemical composition of terrigenous rocks and some petrochemical ratios can serve as reliable indicators of various island-arc settings. These indicators make it possible to discriminate sufficiently reliably these settings in paleobasins of orogenic zones.     

Heavy clastic minerals from the Far East island-arc complexes

The results of the study of heavy clastic minerals from the Cretaceous-Paleogene terrigenous complexes of Sikhote-Alin and Kamchatka, as well as from the Cenozoic sediments of the deepwater Vanuatu Trench, are summarized. The data obtained have been interpreted on the basis of their comparison with heavy mineral assemblages of recent sediments deposited in known geodynamic settings. It is shown that the heavy clastic minerals of sedimentary rocks, their relative quantities, and chemical compositions may serve as reliable indicators of different island-arc settings and magmatic processes; these indicators may also be used for identification of such settings in paleobasins of orogenic regions.     

岛弧环境中不同成因的火成岩组合及其地质意义

岛弧环境的形成是与大洋板块俯冲作用有关,由俯冲流体作用于地幔楔部分熔融形成的钙碱性火成岩组合是岛弧环境中物质组成的主体。此外,目前还识别出与俯冲作用有关的其它的岩石类型:埃达克岩、富铌玄武岩、TTG、赞岐岩、玻安岩等,它们指示着不同的地球动力学背景、壳—幔相互作用过程以及源岩发生部分熔融的物理化学条件。本文主要对形成于岛弧环境中不同成因的火成岩组合的特征、形成机制、成矿作用及动力学意义进行了综述。     

Dzhida island-arc system in the Paleoasian Ocean: structure and main stages of Vendian-Paleozoic geodynamic evolution

We propose a model of the geodynamic evolution of the Dzhida island-arc system of the Paleoasian Ocean margin which records transformation of an oceanic basin into an accretion-collision orogenic belt. The system includes several Vendian-Paleozoic complexes that represent a mature oceanic island arc with an accretionary prism, oceanic islands, marginal and remnant seas, and Early Ordovician collisional granitoids. We have revealed a number of subunits (sedimentary sequences and igneous complexes) in the complexes and reconstructed their geodynamic settings. The tectonic evolution of the Dzhida island-arc system comprises five stages: (1) ocean opening (Late Riphean); (2) subduction and initiation of an island arc (Vendian-Early Cambrian); (3) subduction and development of a mature island arc (Middle-Late Cambrian); (4) accretion and formation of local collision zones and remnant basins (Early Ordovician-Devonian); and (5) postcollisional strike-slip faulting (Carboniferous-Permian).     

Conditions of basalt formation in the Dzhida zone of the Paleoasian Ocean

Petrological and geochemical studies performed with invoking data on the compositions of clinopyroxenes have clarified the conditions of formation of Vendian-Cambrian basaltic complexes in the Dzhida zone of the Paleoasian Ocean (northern Mongolia and southwestern Transbaikalia). The research was based on a comparative analysis with reference igneous basaltic associations. Of special importance are our microprobe data on trace and rare-earth elements in clinopyroxenes from igneous rocks of different present-day geodynamic settings, namely, N-MORB (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Central Atlantic), OIB (Bouvet Island, South Atlantic), WPB (within-plate tholeiitic plateau basalts of the Siberian Platform), and boninites of ensimatic arcs (Izu-Bonin island arc, Pacific). The studies have shown that the paleo-oceanic structures in the district of the Urgol guyot formed during geodynamic processes under the impact of mantle plumes on oceanic spreading crust, which resulted in oceanic basaltic plateaus and within-plate oceanic islands. All these structures were later superposed by typical island-arc structure-lithologic associations. Formation of basalt complexes in the Dzhidot guyot district proceeded with a stronger effect of enriched plume melts of within-plate oceanic islands as compared with the Urgol guyot. This is evidenced from petrochemical and geochemical data showing the development of OIB-type magmatic systems on the oceanic basement. Data on clinopyroxenes confirm the participation of mantle plume in this process, which led to the evolution of magmas from typical oceanic basalts (MORB) to plateau basalts and OIB.     

Collisional mafic magmatism of the fold-thrust belts framing southern Siberia (Western Sangilen,southeastern Tuva)

We consider geochemical features of mafic magmatism manifested during the evolution of a complex nappe-folded structure in Western Sangilen, resulted from the Cambrian-Ordovician collisional tectogenesis. There are abundant ultramafic-mafic and mafic associations of different types in this region: layered low-Ti low-alkali ultramafic-mafic intrusions, high-Ti medium-alkali gabbroids, gabbro-monzodiorite intrusions, and alkali basalts. Isotope-geochronological data showed that these complexes formed over a wide time interval, from 570 to 440 Ma. At this time, the geodynamic setting in Western Sangilen changed from an island-arc one via a collision one to an intercontinental rift setting. At the early and late stages of the evolution of Western Sangilen, the geochemical features of mafites were typical of their geodynamic settings. The properties of mafites that formed synchronously with the collision are of particular interest. The studies have shown that the chemical composition of collisional mafites of Western Sangilen changed with time. They became richer in alkalies, titanium, and incompatible elements. This fact indicates a change in the type of mantle source from suprasubductional in the Cambrian to enriched deeper-level one in the Ordovician.     

Average compositions of igneous melts from main geodynamic settings according to the investigation of melt inclusions in minerals and quenched glasses of rocks

We compiled a database containing more than 480000 determinations for 73 elements in melt inclusions in minerals and quenched glasses of volcanic rocks. These data were used to estimate the mean contents of major, volatile, and trace elements in igneous melts from main geodynamic settings. The following settings were distinguished: (I) oceanic spreading zones (mid-ocean ridges); (II) zones of mantle plume activity on oceanic plates (oceanic islands and plateaus); (III) and (IV) settings related to subduction processes, including (III) zones of island-arc magmatism generated on the oceanic crust and (IV) magmatic zones of active continental margins involving the continental crust into magma generation processes; (V) intracontinental rifts and continental hot spots; and (VI) back-arc spreading centers. The histogram of SiO₂ contents in the natural igneous melts of all geodynamic settings exhibits a bimodal distribution with two maxima at SiO₂ contents of 50–52 wt % and 72–74 wt %. The range 62–64 wt % SiO₂ comprises the minimum number of determinations. Primitive mantle-normalized spidergrams were constructed for average contents of elements in the igneous melts of basic, intermediate, and acidic compositions from settings I–V. The diagrams reflect the characteristic features of melt compositions for each geodynamic setting. On the basis of the analysis of data on the composition of melt inclusions and glasses of rocks, average ratios of incompatible trace and volatile components (H₂O/Ce, K₂O/Cl, Nb/U, Ba/Rb, Ce/Pb, etc.) were estimated for the igneous melts of all of the settings. Variations of these ratios were determined, and it was shown that, in most cases, the ratios of incompatible elements are significantly different between settings. The difference is especially pronounced for the ratios of elements with different degrees of incompatibility (e.g., Nb/Yb) and for some ratios with volatile components (e.g., K₂O/H₂O).     

Geochemistry of paleozoic terrigenous sediments from the Oldoi terrane, eastern Central Asian orogenic belt, as an indicator of geodynamic conditions during deposition

The analysis of the major and trace element geochemistry of Paleozoic terrigenous sediments from the Oldoi terrane, eastern Central Asian orogenic belt, supports a predominantly felsic source consisting of granites and recycled sediments. The geological data suggest that detrital material could be derived from Early Paleozoic granitoids, which were identified within tectonic blocks in the Silurian and Devonian terrigenous successions. The analysis of conventional discrimination diagrams indicates that the initial stage was marked by deposition along a passive continental margin, which continued in island-arc or active continental margin environments. This interpretation is consistent with geological evidence, such as the presence of volcanic interlayers and lenses in the Middle-Late Devonian successions and granitoids with ages of 386 +/- 10 and 371+/- 5.5 Ma. The timing of changes in geodynamic settings constrained by tectonic reconstructions corresponds to the age of the inception of the Norovlya continental-margin magmatic arc.     

Trigger effects in the evolution of geological structures as applied to regional tectonics

In the course of reconstructing the geodynamic evolution of certain regions and structures, it is pointed out that the formation algorithm, which operates for a long time, abruptly changes unaffected by any obvious factor: a thermal event, collision of lithospheric plates, etc. It is suggested that the sharp change in the geological evolution algorithm is related to accumulation of the energy potential, the relaxation of which is initiated by a trigger mechanism that leads to realization of the stored energy in a new form. Several geodynamic situations, the origin and development of which are related to the trigger mechanism, are considered in the paper: morphostructural subdivision of paleobasins, interaction of deformation and metamorphism, vertical accretion of a granitic-metamorphic layer, and development of horizontal protrusions (plate flows) in the Earth’s lithosphere.     

Geochemical evidence for arc-type volcanism in the Aegean Sea: the blueschist unit of Siphnos, Cyclades (Greece)

Blueschists, eclogites, chlorite–actinolite rocks and jadeite-gneisses of the blueschist unit of Siphnos have been investigated for their geochemical composition. Their protolith nature is characterised and a geodynamic model for the pre-metamorphic evolution of these metavolcanic rocks is proposed on the basis of immobile elements, especially trace elements and rare earth elements (REE).

The protoliths of the eclogites are characterised as calc-alkaline basalts, andesites and Fe-rich tholeiites evolving in an island-arc setting. Trace element data indicate that subducted marine sediments were assimilated in the magma chamber, enriching the protoliths in LILE and Pb. Produced in the early stage of back-arc basin opening, a protolith with affinities to both island-arc and MORB formed the precursor of the chlorite–actinolite rocks. They were created by low degrees of partial melting of very primitive magmas, akin to spinel-peridotites and have affinities to boninites, probably through melting of the peridotitic mantle wedge. Tholeiitic basalts and andesites with N-MORB affinity, especially in their REE-patterns, were then produced by partial melting, possibly in an embryonic back-arc basin. These rocks were the protoliths of the blueschists of Siphnos. Their enrichment in some LILE and Pb indicates a N-MORB source contaminated by marine sediments, probably shales or other Pb-rich sediments. Because the jadeite-gneisses show affinities to MOR-granites and volcanic arc granites, intrusion of their protoliths in a back-arc environment is likely. The protoliths of the quartz-jadeite gneisses are rhyodacites/dacites and rhyolites, those of the glaucophane-jadeite gneisses were andesites.

The proposed geodynamic model, solely based on geochemical data, is consistent with geochemical data from neighbouring islands, though those rock units show much higher chemical variability. Consistent with geotectonic models, which are based on structural and geophysical data, the volcanic protoliths of the Siphnos blueschist unit reflect the transition from subduction to spreading environment and record in detail: subduction, formation of an island-arc, and the evolution of a back-arc basin.     

Early Paleozoic magmatism in the Bumbat-Hairhan area of the Lake Zone in western Mongolia (geological,petrochemical, and geochronological data)

We consider the structure, composition, and age of Early Paleozoic intrusive associations of the Bumbat-Hairhan area located in the central part of the island-arc system of the Lake Zone, western Mongolia. There are large polychronous plutons (Bumbat-Hairhan and Gundguzin) and small intrusions in this area. We have established that they are composed of granitoid and gabbroid associations of different lithology, ages, and geodynamic nature. The results of U-Pb dating show that granitoid and basic magmatism took place within 551–465 Ma. Two main stages of intrusive magmatism are recognized, which reflect two stages of the geodynamic evolution of the region: island-arc (551–524 Ma) and accretion–collision (511–465 Ma). At all stages, predominant rocks in the region were diorite–tonalite–plagiogranite and plagiogranite associations of calc-alkaline series..     

Comparative Geodynamics of Aleutian and Izu–Bonin–Mariana Island-Arc Systems

Geotectonics - We have performed a comparative analysis of geological structure and geodynamic evolution of the nearly synchronous Izu–Bonin–Mariana and Aleutian island-arc systems. The...     

Late neoproterozoic igneous complexes of the western Baikal-Muya Belt: Formation stages

The paper presents new geological, geochemical, and isotopic data on igneous rocks from a thoroughly studied area in the western Baikal-Muya Belt, which is a representative segment of the Neoproterozoic framework of the Siberian Craton. Three rock associations are distinguished in the studied area: granulite-enderbite-charnockite and ultramafic-mafic complexes followed by the latest tonalite-plagiogranitegranite series corresponding to adakite in geochemical characteristics. Tonalites and granites intrude the metamorphic and gabbroic rocks of the Tonky Mys Point, as well as Slyudyanka and Kurlinka intrusions. The tonalites yielded a U-Pb zircon age of 595 ± 5 Ma. The geochronological and geological information indicate that no later than a few tens of Ma after granulite formation they were transferred to the upper lithosphere level. The Sm-Nd isotopic data show that juvenile material occurs in rocks of granitoid series (?_Nd(t) = 3.2–7.1). Ophiolites, island-arc series, eclogites, and molasse sequences have been reviewed as indicators of Neoproterozoic geodynamic settings that existed in the Baikal-Muya Belt. The implications of spatially associated granulites and ultramafic-mafic intrusions, as well as granitoids with adakitic geochemical characteristics for paleogeodynamic reconstructions of the western Baikal-Muya Belt, are discussed together with other structural elements of the Central Asian Belt adjoining the Siberian Platform in the south.     

Gallium concentration in natural melts and fluids

We generalize, for the first time, published and original data on the gallium concentrations in natural magmatic melts and fluids obtained by studying quenched glasses in volcanic rocks and inclusions in minerals. Based on 2688 determinations, gallium concentrations in magmatic melts vary between 0.47 and 495 ppm at average content of 18.0 ppm (+4.2/–3.4). Gallium concentrations in magmatic melts generated in different geodynamic settings show different distribution. Minimum concentrations (on average, 16.0 ppm, +3.6/–2.9) are typical of the island-arc melts, while maximum contents were determined in melts of oceanic islands (on average, 29.1 ppm, +13.4/–9.2) and intracontinental rifts and hot spots (26.5 ppm, +25.4/–13.0). Published and new 339 determinations of gallium concentrations in natural fluids indicate the wider range of their variations as compared to those of melts: from 0.02 to 11260 ppm, at average 1.6 ppm (+10.8–1.4). The possible gallium fractionation in fluid—magmatic systems is discussed.     

Determining the Geodynamic Setting of Adakitic Granitoids Using Geochemical Data

Discriminant analysis was performed for representative sets of igneous rocks with adakitic geochemical signatures (granitoids of Archean tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite suites, island-arc adakites, and adakites and adakitic granitoids of collisional to postcollisional geodynamic settings). It was shown that the granitoids of Archean tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite suites are significantly different from islandarc adakites, as well as from collisional to postcollisional adakites and adakitic granitoids. The following discriminant function was proposed for the geodynamic classification of island arc and collisional-postcollisional adakites and adakitic granitoids on the basis of chemical composition: DF₃ =–1.69324TiO₂–0.25537Al₂O₃–0.21269FeO* + 0.06076MgO–0.09796CaO + 0.47377Na₂O + 0.29270K₂O + 3.57821P₂O₅ + 0.00431Rb + 0.00036Sr + 0.03119Y + 0.00006Zr + 0.01088Nb–0.00048Ba + 0.01366La + 0.0004Ce + 0.02319Nd–0.18584Sm + 1.29135Eu–0.62229Gd + 0.3819Dy + 2.06583Er–2.62769Yb + 1.6464.     

Concentration of ore elements in magmatic melts and natural fluids as deduced from data on inclusions in minerals

Based on intergration of the published data on composition of inclusions in minerals and quenched glasses, the mean concentrations of 24 ore elements have been calculated for magmatic silicate melts formed in main geodynamic settings of the Earth and in natural fluids. The mean glass compositions normalized to the primitive mantle correlate with the partition coefficient between olivine and the basic melt. It is established that the degree of enrichment in ore elements depending on geodynamic setting is controlled by various contribution of fluids to the element transfer and accumulation. The ratios of element contents in each geodynamic setting to the mean concentrations of elements over all settings in the Earth have been calculated.     

Carboniferous deposits in the basement of the southwestern West Siberian geosyneclise (Kurgan Region)

The ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age of volcanics from the sections of core boreholes in the northern Tyumen’-Kostanai trough (Kurgan Region) has been determined. The geologic structure of the northern part of the trough has been refined. The paleogeographic environments and geodynamic settings of formation of Carboniferous deposits have been established by sedimentological, petrological, and geochemical studies of the sections. In the Visean, marine environments with maximum basin depths were predominant. In the Kachar epoch (C1v3-s), the submarine relief of the basin became more complicated; blocks of older rocks appeared in the deposits. The geochemical indicator characteristics of the volcanics—contents of HFSE (Ti, Nb, Ta, Th, and Hf)—are close to those of andesitoids of island arcs and Andean-type active continental margins, as well as present-day andesites from the Kurile-Kamchatka zone. They are an order of magnitude lower than those in similar continental-rift volcanics, among which are volcanics of the Valer’yanovka zone (according to some researchers). The contents of Ni, Co, and V are similar to those in island-arc andesites, including rocks of the Kurile-Kamchatka zone. The Ba/Ta and Ba/La ratios and the proportions of Th, Hf, and Ta in andesitoids of the Valer’yanovka and Kachar Groups are close to the indicator characteristics of island-arc and active-continental-margin volcanics. The Kachar Group siliceous rocks are similar in the Rb/Zr-Nb, Fe-Nb, and Rb-(Y + Nb) correlations to rocks of mature island arcs and active continental margins. The incompatible-element and REE patterns for the Valer’yanovka and Kachar volcanics are typical of island-arc volcanics, including rocks from the Kurile-Kamchatka zone. The indicator geochemical features and petrology of the volcanics and the sedimentologic features of the deposits testify to their formation on an Andean-type active continental margin (western margin of the Kazakhstan paleocontinent) in the Early-Middle Carboniferous.     

Kalikorva structure and its position in the system of the northern Karelian greenstone belts: Geochemical and geochronological data

New geochemical data on volcanic rocks and the first U-Pb zircon ages for the Kalikorva structure made it possible to determine the time and conditions of their formation and constrain geodynamic models. The lower sequences of the Kalikorva structure is dominated by metatholeiites with high MgO, Cr, and Ni contents, high Mg#, and REE distribution patterns close to the mantle level. They contain rare komatiite interlayers and lenses of pyroxenites and peridotites and can be considered as products of the deep melting of mantle material. At the same time, the tholeiitic metabasalts bear island-arc signatures and are intercalated with metagraywackes and metadacites (adakites). This rock association could be formed under spreading conditions at the beginning of an island-arc regime. The upper sequence is dominated by metagraywackes and contains diverse rocks with both MORB (tholeiitic and komatiitic basalts) and island-arc (calc-alkaline andesite and dacites, subalkaline basalts, and picritic basalts) affinity, which is typical of back-arc basins. The U-Pb dating of zircons from the metadacites and detrital zircons from the metagraywackes of the Kalikorva structure yielded similar ages of 2785 ± 13 and 2766 ± 21 Ma, respectively. They coincide with the age of the late volcanic complex of the Hisovaara Group of the Hisovaara structure (2780 Ma). Both complexes include island-arc associations with subduction signatures and contain adakites, Nb-Ti basalts, and basaltic andesites. The metagraywackes and metadacites of the Chupa sequence of the Belomorian mobile belt are older than the similar rocks of the Kalikorva complex and have an age of 2870 ± 30 Ma. Ages of 2735 ± 20 Ma and 2720 ± 4 Ma were previously obtained for the metaandesites of the Kichany volcanogenic complex, which could be an even younger volcanic arc.     

Geodynamic conditions of formation of massive sulfide deposits in the Magnitogorsk Megazone,Southern Urals,and prospection criteria

The zoned composition changes of the massive sulfide deposits in the major massive sulfide zone of the Southern Urals such as the Magnitogorsk Megasynclinorium are considered. The zoning is expressed as the trend of Ni–Co–Cu → Zn–Cu → Cu–Zn → Au–Ba–Pb–Cu–Zn. This trend is related to two basic factors: (1) the subduction process with the slab’s eastward subsidence preconditioned the formation (from the west to the east) of the following massive sulfide zones: accretionary prism, frontal island arc, developed island arc, inter-arc spreading zone, split back arc, and back-arc spreading; (2) the longitudinal zoning of the massive sulfide paleovolcanic belts related to changes in the thickness of the crust’s basaltic layer and an inclination of the subducting plate in transverse blocks of the belt. The first factor affects the general paleovolcanic and metallogenic latitudinal zoning of the studied region, while the second factor defines the local meridional zoning. The composition of ore-bearing solutions is dependent on the formation depth of the subduction fluids, magma differentiation type, and the ratio of deep fluids to solutions of near-surface convective cells. The combination of the geodynamic factors expressed in the composition of ore-bearing volcanic complexes and the specific geological settings defines the massive sulfide mineralization composition and productivity criteria. The most productive structures include the frontal island-arc and inter-arc spreading zones and within them, the central-type volcanic edifices whose basalts are referred to as the island-arc tholeiite series and are characterized by the minimum TiO₂ and Zr content and low La/Yb ratios.     

中亚成矿域斑岩铜金成矿的地质环境问题

中亚成矿域在蒙古、乌兹别克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦和哈萨克斯坦产有Oyu Tolgoi、Almalyk、Andash-Taldy Bulak、Aktogai、Kounrad等众多巨型和世界级斑岩铜金矿床,中国新疆北部斑岩铜金找矿持续重大突破令人期待。中亚成矿域大规模斑岩铜金成矿于什么地质环境?新疆北部、尤其天山斑岩铜金地质找矿持续突破的前景怎样?都是颇受关注的重大地质和找矿问题。通过广泛深入文献调研和重要矿集区实地调查研究表明,中亚构造成矿域在古亚洲洋壳俯冲增生、陆陆碰撞和后碰撞伸展等不同时期地质环境中,虽然均有斑岩铜金成矿作用发生,但古亚洲洋俯冲形成不同时期的增生岛弧是中亚斑岩铜金最为重要的成矿地质环境,大规模斑岩铜金成矿出现在洋盆演化末期、或即将关闭时的成熟岛弧环境。为什么中亚重要斑岩铜金矿床多形成于年长的成熟岛弧是值得探索的重要科学问题。新疆北部、尤其天山不同时期的岛弧发育完整,岛弧岩浆作用强烈而漫长,斑岩铜金成矿条件优越,大型-超大型铜金矿地质找矿潜力巨大,有望持续发现重要斑岩铜金矿床。