地形因子与小微地震相关度的空间异质性分析

针对传统最小二乘回归未能顾及数据的空间特性,且无法度量模型自变量与因变量相关性的空间变异特性的问题,本文提出利用地理加权回归方法分析小微地震频次与地形因子相关度的空间异质性。以四川地区的地震监测资料、DEM为实验数据,选取地形复杂度、坡度变率、坡向变率和地面曲率为自变量,地震发生频次为因变量,构建地理加权回归模型,并进行回归系数的空间变异分析。实验分析发现,地震频次与地形因子具有一定的相关性:地形复杂度与地震频次相关性最强;坡度变率、沟壑密度、剖面曲率与地震频次的相关性依次减弱;不同空间位置的地形因子和地震频次的相关性具有较明显的空间异质性。实验结果表明,地理加权回归可以有效地度量分析地震频次与地形因子相关度的空间异质性,研究结果可为地震及次生灾害的分析与预报提供辅助决策参考。     

影响黄土高原集水面积阈值的地形因子主成分分析

以ASTER GDEM为信息源、22个典型小流域为样区,分析黄土高原集水面积阈值与沟谷密度的关系,利用均值变点法确定最佳阈值,探讨了影响阈值的数字高程模型（digital elevation model,DEM）地形因子主成分。结果表明,集水面积阈值由北向南、自东向西逐步增大,宏观上受黄土高原地貌类型制约,地形因子对其的影响成分归纳为坡面、起伏及高程变异因子。坡面因子的最大值与阈值正相关,坡度>粗糙度>地形曲率>平面曲率>剖面曲率。起伏因子的均值与阈值正相关,起伏度>切割深度。高程变异因子与阈值负相关。三者的主成分贡献率依次为58.754%、18.915%、11.388%,权重为0.527、0.229、-0.569。研究表明,坡面特征是影响黄土沟谷发育的重要因子。     

The Effect of DEM Raster Resolution on First Order, Second Order and Compound Terrain Derivatives

It is well known that the grid cell size of a raster digital elevation model has significant effects on derived terrain variables such as slope, aspect, plan and profile curvature or the wetness index. In this paper the quality of DEMs derived from the interpolation of photogrammetrically derived elevation points in Alberta, Canada, is tested. DEMs with grid cell sizes ranging from 100 to 5 m were interpolated from 100 m regularly spaced elevation points and numerous surface‐specific point elevations using the ANUDEM interpolation method. In order to identify the grid resolution that matches the information content of the source data, three approaches were applied: density analysis of point elevations, an analysis of cumulative frequency distributions using the Kolmogorov‐Smirnov test and the root mean square slope measure. Results reveal that the optimum grid cell size is between 5 and 20 m, depending on terrain com‐plexity and terrain derivative. Terrain variables based on 100 m regularly sampled elevation points are compared to an independent high‐resolution DEM used as a benchmark. Subsequent correlation analysis reveals that only elevation and local slope have a strong positive relationship while all other terrain derivatives are not represented realistically when derived from a coarse DEM. Calculations of root mean square errors and relative root mean square errors further quantify the quality of terrain derivatives.     

基于地统计学的黄土高原地貌分异规律研究

地统计分析是研究区域化变量的重要手段,以陕北黄土高原为研究区域,采用数字地形分析结合地统计学的方法进行地形空间分异规律研究.选取神木、绥德、延川、甘泉、宜君、长武、淳化7个样区,从变程、偏基台值、块金值3个指标,分析了黄土高原地区高程、坡度、剖面曲率和平面曲率在空间上的分异规律.结果表明,高程的块金值变化与地形粗糙度存...     

Simulating Complex Adaptive Geographic Systems: A Geographically Aware Intelligent Agent Approach

The objective of this paper is to present a spatially explicit agent-based simulation framework with a supporting software package to explore complex adaptive geographic systems. This framework is particularly suitable for modeling entities that are contextually aware, knowledge driven, and adaptive because it represents them as geographically aware intelligent agents. Fundamental advances in the explicit representation of contextual information, knowledge structures, and learning processes are needed for modeling intelligent agents situated within geographic systems. The representation of these agents requires the integration of agent-based models, machine learning, and GIS. Existing software packages for agent-based modeling, however, often provide insufficient support for this integration. The agent-based simulation package presented here is specifically designed to achieve such integration by assisting the development of agent-based models from the simulation framework. Object-oriented modeling techniques were used to implement this simulation package, which includes four modules: simulation, visualization, learning, and geoprocessing. In particular, the learning and geoprocessing modules facilitate the representation of adaptive behavior in agents within spatially explicit environments. The utility of the agent-based simulation package is illustrated using two simulation models: one of adaptive elk behavior and another of pedestrian movement. The successful design of the simulation models suggests that the modeling framework with the supporting software package is well suited to the resolution of complex adaptive geographic problems.     

基于卡尔曼滤波的地形反演方法及其仿真研究

推导基于卡尔曼滤波的海底地形反演算法,算法通过利用重力梯度仪测量重力梯度异常,提高地形反演的精度和分辨率.结合地形坡度计算理论和矩形棱柱法,建立基于卡尔曼滤波的系统方程和量测方程.对算法进行仿真,分析地形均值误差、随机误差和梯度仪测量精度对反演精度的影响,最后的区域反演仿真结果表明:反演后的地形在精度和分辨率上都有所提...     

Evaluation of vertical accuracy of open source Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a quantitative representation of terrain and is important for Earth science and hydrological applications. DEM can be generated using photogrammetry, interferometry, ground and laser surveying and other techniques. Some of the DEMs such as ASTER, SRTM, and GTOPO 30 are freely available open source products. Each DEM contains intrinsic errors due to primary data acquisition technology and processing methodology in relation with a particular terrain and land cover type. The accuracy of these datasets is often unknown and is non-uniform within each dataset. In this study we evaluate open source DEMs (ASTER and SRTM) and their derived attributes using high postings Cartosat DEM and Survey of India (SOI) height information. It was found that representation of terrain characteristics is affected in the coarse postings DEM. The overall vertical accuracy shows RMS error of 12.62 m and 17.76 m for ASTER and SRTM DEM respectively, when compared with Cartosat DEM. The slope and drainage network delineation are also violated. The terrain morphology strongly influences the DEM accuracy. These results can be highly useful for researchers using such products in various modeling exercises.     

MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF THE ACCURACY OF DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL SURFACES LINEARLY CONSTRUCTED FROM SQUARE GRIDDED DATA

This paper presents two mathematical models of the accuracy of digital terrain model (DTM) surfaces which have been linearly constructed from square gridded data, respectively with and without additional feature specific data. In these models, the accuracy of DTM surfaces is expressed as a function of a few parameters, such as slope angle, grid interval or the accuracy of raw data, which are familiar to practitioners in photogrammetry and other mapping related disciplines. These models are in a form similar to the conventional formulae for contour map accuracy and they are compared with experimental test results.     

基于栅格DEM的地形特征提取与分析

以陕北延安地区燕儿沟流域为实验样区,运用比较分析法和数理统计法进行基于栅格DEM的地形特征提取和分析,以及DEM分辨率对地形特征的影响,并计算和比较了地形特征的空间统计分布。研究表明:一个相对真实的DEM能够通过修改生成DEM的基本材料,以及对DEM进行再加工而获得。由于DEM分辨率的不同,由此得到的地形特征值(如坡度、地形指数、河网密度等)在统计特性上也会随之变化。随着DEM分辨率的降低,坡度减小,地形坦化,地形指数均值变大,流域总面积变大,子流域数量减少,河流总长度减小,河网密度降低。     

InSAR DEM精度与地形特征的关系分析

为研究InSARDEM与地形特征的关系,本文以从不同空间位置获取的两幅SAR影像作为实验数据,将InSARDEM与USGSDEM进行比较,分析了InSARDEM的精度,并研究其与坡度、坡向之间的关系。结果表明,本次实验InSARDEM与USGSDEM高程差异中误差为+19.11m,其精度与地形特征强烈相关,随着坡度的增加,InSARDEM精度降低,且前坡处高程精度高于后坡。     

数字地形分析中适宜分析窗口选择方法的评价

基于栅格DEM（digital elevation model）计算局域地形属性时,所采用的分析窗口将直接影响数字地形分析结果,因此在实际应用中应选择适宜分析窗口。由于地形条件是随空间变化的,因此随空间变化的适宜分析窗口应比通常所用的全局固定的3×3窗口更为合理。目前通过定量计算获得随空间变化适宜分析窗口的方法是多窗口局部地表形态刻画法。选用3个具有不同地形特征的研究区,在不同分辨率下分别将坡度、剖面曲率用于该方法来确定适宜分析窗口,对实验结果进行分析评价。结果表明,当利用不同地形信息时,所得的适宜分析窗口情况明显不同。进一步的实验分析发现,与传统所用的全局固定3×3窗口相比,该方法所识别出的随空间变化的适宜分析窗口结果对于实际应用结果没有明显差别。因此该方法有效性存疑,尚不能作为确定适宜分析窗口的有效方法,还需进一步开展方法研究,以设计出合理有效的方法来识别随空间变化的适宜分析窗口。     

密集低矮植被区LiDAR点云地面滤波算法

针对地形复杂且低矮植被茂密的矿区LiDAR点云特点,本文提出了一种基于坡度信息并结合平面拟合的地面滤波算法。该方法采用二级格网法逐级选取地面种子点,在每个一级格网中,利用地面种子点通过最小二乘拟合法进行平面拟合并构建地面模型,最后达到区分地面点和非地面点的效果。与传统坡度法和布料模拟法的对比试验表明,该方法能够有效滤除密集低矮灌木,以及较好地保留较大坡度地形。     

点坡度熵在地形简化中的应用

坡度是定量描述地貌形态特征的重要因子。针对DEM坡度在地形简化中应用研究较少的现状,本文基于信息熵理论提出了点坡度熵（SEP）概念,构建了量化地形信息的点坡度熵模型,研究了基于点坡度熵的地形简化方法。结合试验样区数据,将常用的重要点法与该方法进行了应用对比。结果表明,该方法可有效保留地形骨架信息,取主舍次效果优于重要点法。该方法对后续DEM地形简化研究具有一定参考价值。     

Terrain characterization using SRTM data

Earth’s surface possesses relief because the geomorphic processes operate at different rates, and geologic structure plays a dominant role in the evolution of landforms (Thornbury, 1954). The spatial pattern of relief yields the topographic mosaic of a terrain and is normally extracted from the topographical maps which are available at various scales. As cartographic abstractions are scale dependent, topographical maps are rarely good inputs for terrain analysis. Currently, the shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) provides one of the most complete, highest resolution digital elevation model (DEM) of the Earth. It is an ideal data-set for precise terrain analysis and topographic characterization in terms of the nature of altimetric distribution, relief aspects, patterns of lineaments and surface slope, topographic profiles and their visualisation, correlation between geology and topography, hypsometric attributes and finally, the hierarchy of terrain sub-units. The present paper extracts the above geomorphic features and terrain character of part of the Chotonagpur plateau and the Dulung River basin therein using SRTM data.     

DEM空间尺度对岷江上游流域特征提取的影响

DEM分辨率是描述DEM地形精确程度的一个重要指标,同时也是决定DEM使用范围的一个主要影响因素。此处以岷江上游流域为研究区,Arc GIS为技术支撑,分析DEM空间尺度对流域特征提取的影响。首先,采用7组不同分辨率的DEM数据,通过5类不同特征参数的提取来进行DEM尺度效应的定量分析。其次,借鉴坡度中误差法思想和信息熵理论,综合分析高程、坡度和地面粗糙度来确定该地区DEM研究的分辨率合理范围。结论表明:随着DEM栅格大小的不断增大,高程区间和坡度随之减小;地面粗糙度的减小表现出地形的平坦化;信息熵所包含的内容减少;河网总长度和河网密度也随之变短变稀疏。文中岷江上游流域特征提取研究的DEM最佳空间分辨率区间为30~60 m。     

模糊决策理论的地磁图适配性分析

传统地磁图适配性分析仅将单一特征参数作为评价指标,从而导致分析结果不全面.针对此问题,提出了一种基于模糊决策理论的地磁图适配性分析方法.首先采用地磁标准差、粗糙度、相关系数、坡度标准差及地磁信息熵等5个主要特征参数作为模糊指标进行加权分析,得到综合评价值以评定候选区适配性.然后基于地磁异常的无迹卡尔曼滤波算法,选取中国...     

分形地形复杂度研究

利用VC++6.0与OpenGL开发了1个地形分析程序,分别实现了2种地形复杂度描述方法.基于分形几何学的思想,对栅格DEM进行地形分析,得出的实验地区地表分维值,比传统地表粗糙度分析方法得出的地表粗糙度值能更好地表现地形变化的连续性和空间相关性.实验表明,地表分维值能够很好地反映地形变化特征,可作为栅格DEM地形复杂...     

An approach to extracting surface supply relationships between glaciers and lakes on the Tibetan Plateau

Surface supply relationships between glaciers and lakes are needed to analyze and understand hydrological processes at regional and global scales. However, these supply relationships still cannot be extracted efficiently by existing methods. This paper proposes an automatic and efficient approach to extracting surface supply relationships between glaciers and lakes based on meltwater flow paths. The approach includes two stages: (1) identifying direct connections between objects (i.e. glaciers and lakes) based on flow direction derived from digital terrain analysis on a gridded digital elevation model (DEM) and (2) deriving all (or user-specified) kinds of surface supply relationships based on graph search. All computation-intensive steps in this approach have been parallelized; and all steps in the proposed approach have been integrated as an automatic program. Results for the Tibetan Plateau show that given outline data for glaciers and lakes and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission DEM, the proposed approach can automatically derive diverse surface supply relationships under user-specified restrictions on the attributes of the supply route. The parallelization in the approach effectively improves the computing efficiency. The proposed approach could also be applied to developing a detailed fundamental dataset of supply relationships between glaciers and lakes for other region or period.     

DEM Extraction in Urban Areas Using High-Resolution TerraSAR-X Imagery

Three-dimensional (3D) spatial information is crucial for improving the quality of human life through urban planning and management, and it is widely utilized due to its rapid, periodic and inexpensive acquisition. In this context, extraction of digital surface and elevation models (DSM and DEM) is a significant research topic for space-borne optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) remote sensing. The DSMs include visible features on the earth’s surface such as vegetation, forest and elevated man-made objects, while DEMs contain only the bare ground. In this paper, using TerraSAR-X (TSX) high resolution Spotlight (HS) images, high-resolution interferometric DEM generation in a part of Istanbul urban area is aimed. This is not an easy task because of SAR imaging problems in complex geometry of urban settlements. The interferometric processing steps for DSM generation were discussed including critical parameters and thresholds to improve the quality of the final product and a 3 m gridded DSM was generated. The DSM-DEM conversion was performed by filtering and the quality of generated DEM was verified against a reference DEM from stereo photogrammetry with 3 m original grid spacing. The achieved root mean square error of height differences (RMSZ) varies from 7.09 to 8.11 m, depending on the terrain slope. The differential DEM, illustrates the height differences between generated DEM and the reference DEM, was generated to show the correlation between height differences and the coherence map. Finally, a perspective view of test area was created draping extracted DEM and a high-resolution IKONOS panchromatic image.     

面向森林植被的星载大光斑激光雷达回波仿真

利用星载激光雷达的大光斑全波形数据估测植被结构参数、监测森林生态已受到广泛关注。为了更准确地理解森林植被的结构参数和光学特性对激光雷达回波波形的影响,利用实测森林植被数据提取植被空间分布的统计规律,考虑地形坡度变化和植被冠层反射特性的影响,生成参数化的森林植被空间轮廓反射模型,结合星载激光雷达的回波理论,建立了面向植被的星载激光雷达波形仿真器。由大兴安岭地区的实测植被数据提取的统计规律生成的森林目标仿真波形与地球科学激光测高仪系统（Geoscience Laser Altimeter System,GLAS）真实回波波形具有较好的一致性,平均相关系数R2达到0.91。通过波形仿真分析发现,光斑尺寸减小有利于大坡度地形的森林信息反演,研究成果对中国未来研制星载激光雷达载荷的系统参数设计具有参考意义。