Geochemical characterization of groundwater from an arid region in India

A study on the geochemical processes in arid region of western India (Kachchh district) was carried out using major, minor, trace metal data and isotopic composition (δ²H, δ¹⁸O) of groundwaters. Results indicate that the distribution of chemical species in groundwater of this district is controlled by leaching of marine sediments, dissolution of salts in root zone and incongruent dissolution of carbonate minerals. Common inorganic contaminants such as fluoride, nitrate and phosphate are within drinking water permissible limits. However, most of the samples analyzed contain total dissolved salts more than desirable limits and fall in doubtful to unsuitable category with regard to irrigational purpose. Trace metal data indicates no contamination from toxic elements such as arsenic and lead. An increased salt content is observed in groundwater at shallower depths indicating mixing with surface water sources. The chemical characteristics of the groundwater have found to be strongly dependent on the local lithological composition. Environmental isotopic data indicates that the groundwater is of meteoric origin and has undergone limited modification before its recharge. The processes responsible for observed brackishness are identified using chemical and isotope indicators, which are in agreement with subsurface lithology and hydrochemistry. These data though represent hydrochemical scenario of 2001 can still be used for understanding the long-term fluctuations in water chemistry and would be quite useful for the planners in validating groundwater quality models.     

冀中山前农业区地下水位强降弱升特征与机制

针对冀中山前平原农业区浅层地下水位不断下降问题,采用时间序列异变特征和趋势分析方法,基于小时级、自记监测的地下水位动态资料,通过农业区灌溉期、非灌溉期地下水位变化程度的差异特征及机制研究,结果表明:该平原农业区浅层地下水位变化在主灌溉期呈"cm/d"级(大于1.0 cm/d)下降、非灌溉期呈"mm/d"级(小于1.0 cm/d)上升的特征,这些特征与降水量、年内降水分配状况及其影响的农业开采强度密切相关。前期降水偏枯,灌溉期地下水位下降过程线和年内水位上升过程线的大部分位于当地多年地下水位变化趋势线之下;前期降水偏丰,位于趋势线之上。农业集中开采是地下水位"cm/d"级下降特征的动因,厚大包气带是地下水位"mm/d"级上升特征形成的重要条件。     

基于区域农业用水量的干旱重现期计算方法

为研究实际水利条件下农业干旱的发生规律,简化农业干旱事件的评估方法,提出基于区域农业用水量的干旱重现期计算方法。通过构建农业用水量距平百分率干旱指标W_A,在基于降雨量距平百分率干旱指标P_A识别干旱事件的基础上,提取W_A干旱指标下的干旱历时和干旱烈度特征变量,并根据以P_A为干旱指标的干旱烈度频率分布曲线F_S（x）和干旱历时频率分布曲线F_D（x）,运用Copula的简化方法计算基于W_A的干旱事件重现期T,最后结合基于P_A的干旱事件重现期T₀,回归分析出T与T₀间关系的计算公式。选取干旱灾害影响严重的亳州市为实证区域开展应用研究,计算得到1975-2007年各场干旱事件的T₀和T以及T₀与T的经验关系式。结果表明:T比T₀更合理地反映区域农业实际受旱状况,重现期T₀和T间存在高度的相关关系,采用T的回归方程可简化计算考虑区域实际抗旱能力下的干旱事件重现期,在区域防旱减灾实践中具有推广应用价值。     

Investigation of the climate-driven periodicity of shallow groundwater level fluctuations in a Central-Eastern European agricultural region

The distribution and amount of groundwater, a crucial source of Earth’s drinking and irrigation water, is changing due to climate-change effects. Therefore, it is important to understand groundwater behavior in extreme scenarios, e.g. drought. Shallow groundwater (SGW) level fluctuation under natural conditions displays periodic behavior, i.e. seasonal variation. Thus, the study aims to investigate (1) the periodic behavior of the SGW level time series of an agriculturally important and drought-sensitive region in Central-Eastern Europe – the Carpathian Basin, in the north-eastern part of the Great Hungarian Plain, and (2) its relationship to the European atmospheric pressure action centers. Data from 216 SGW wells were studied using wavelet spectrum analysis and wavelet coherence analyses for 1961–2010. Locally, a clear relationship exists between the absence of annual periodic behavior in the SGW level and the periodicity of droughts, as indicated by the self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index and the Aridity Index. During the non-periodic intervals, significant drops in groundwater levels (average 0.5 m) were recorded in 89% of the wells. This result links the meteorological variables to the periodic behavior of SGW, and consequently, drought. On a regional scale, Mediterranean cyclones from the Gulf of Genoa (northwest Italy) were found to be a driving factor in the 8-yr periodic behavior of the SGW wells. The research documents an important link between SGW levels and local/regional climate variables or indices, thereby facilitating the necessary adaptation strategies on national and/or regional scales, as these must take into account the predictions of drought-related climatic conditions.     

Soil and groundwater quality with reference to nitrate in a semiarid agricultural region

Nitrate is a common pollutant in surface water and groundwater of agricultural areas. It is essential to monitor this pollutant in groundwater, especially when it is used for drinking purposes without treatment. The present study was carried out in an intensively irrigated area which forms a part of Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh, India where groundwater meets all the water needs of the rural population living in this area. The objective was to assess the spatiotemporal variation in the concentration of nitrate in groundwater and soil. Based on the analysis of 496 groundwater samples collected from 45 wells over a period of 2 years from March 2008 to January 2010 by sampling every 2 months, it was observed that groundwater in 242 km² of the total 724 km² area had nitrate above the maximum permissible limit of 45 mg/l for drinking purposes. Nitrate concentration in groundwater showed a positive relation with potassium, chloride, and sulfate, indicating their source from fertilizers. Reasons for the high concentration of nitrate in domestic areas were the dumping of animal wastes and leakage from septic tanks. The pH of the soil samples showed that most of the area had basic soil. Apart from pH, organic carbon, available phosphorous, available potassium, ammoniacal nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen were also analyzed in the 97 soil samples.     

Modeling of groundwater draft based on satellite-derived crop acreage estimation over an arid region of northwest India

Over-exploitation of groundwater for agricultural crops puts stress on the sustainability of natural resources in the arid region of Rajasthan state, India. Hydrogeological study of groundwater levels of the study area during the pre-monsoon (May to June), post-monsoon (October to November) and post-irrigation (February to March) seasons of 2004–2005 to 2011–2012 shows a steady decline of groundwater levels at the rate of 1.28–1.68 m/year, mainly due to excessive groundwater draft for irrigation. Due to the low density of the groundwater observation-well network in the study area, assessment of groundwater draft, and thus groundwater resource management, becomes a difficult task. To overcome the situation, a linear groundwater draft model (LGDM) has been developed based on the empirical relationship between satellite-derived crop acreage and the observed groundwater draft for the year 2003–2004. The model has been validated for a decade, during three year-long intervals (2005–2006, 2008–2009 and 2011–2012) using groundwater draft, estimated through a discharge factor method. Further, the estimated draft was validated through observed pumping data from random sampled villages (2011–2012). The results suggest that the developed LGDM model provides a good alternative to the estimation of groundwater draft based on satellite-based crop area in the absence of groundwater observation wells in arid regions of northwest India.     

Contribution of shallow groundwater rapid fluctuation to soil salinization under arid and semiarid climate

Rising saline shallow groundwater and associated soil salinization problems are widespread especially in arid and semiarid areas. There have been numerous studies on groundwater-associated salinity, but more information is required on the effects of groundwater frequent and high fluctuations on soil salinization. In the present study, laboratory experiments and numerical simulations using HYDRUS-1D model were carried out for this purpose. The experimental and modeling results showed that groundwater fluctuation caused not only the accumulation of more salt in the soil profile compared to stable groundwater, but also an enhancement of the mechanism. Water table fluctuation induced a much greater spreading of the bromide (Br) tracer within the column than the constant water table. The Br content was on average five orders of magnitude greater under a fluctuating water table than under a constant one. Further, the numerical simulations showed that an increase in the groundwater fluctuation frequency brought about an increase in soil surface salinization under the same evaporation boundary conditions. Additional simulations with HYDRUS-1D were used to study the effects of various management strategies on soil salinization induced by shallow groundwater. Hence, by reducing the evaporation rate through the application of surface mulching, a significant reduction of salt concentration at the soil surface was observed. Moreover, frequent irrigations with small quantities were effective to reduce soil surface salt accumulation induced by saline shallow groundwater.     

江苏淮扬地区浅层地下水环境质量评价与分析

对淮扬地区浅层地下水环境质量进行了单组分评价和综合评价,分析了各项超标组分的形成机理。评价与分析结果显示:淮扬地区局部浅层地下水水质达不到饮用水标准。生态地质环境背景和人类活动导致该地区浅层地下水中多项指标超标。     

干旱区地下水咸化机制的区域氘盈余解析

定量研究干旱区地下水的咸化机制对于水资源管理具有重要意义。针对已有研究需要考虑补给源水δ18O和δ2H值的局限,提出了一种利用区域氘盈余计算初始水、蒸发和溶滤对地下水咸化贡献的方法,并以罗山地区第四系地下水为例进行了分析。结果表明:该方法计算误差较小,可以有效区分蒸发和溶滤的贡献。地下水先溶滤后蒸发的自然咸化过程决定了溶滤作用的主导地位,咸化规模主要取决于溶滤作用程度。     

Impacts of wastewater irrigation in arid and semi arid regions: case of Sidi Abid region,Tunisia

Impacts of irrigation with treated wastewater effluents on soils and groundwater aquifer in the vicinity of Sidi Abid Region (Tunisia) are evaluated. The groundwater aquifer was monitored by several piezometers, where monthly water levels were registered and groundwater salinity was evaluated. This resulted in characterizing the spatial and temporal evolution of the hydrochemical and hydrodynamic properties of the aquifer, showing thereby the impact of artificial recharge. Piezometric maps for pre-recharge and post-recharge situations were developed and a comparison study of both piezometric situations was considered. The piezometric evolution map showed a generalized rise of the piezometric level in the vicinity of the irrigation zone. The extent of recharge was shown to increase with time as the groundwater level increase, which was localized in the vicinity of the irrigation area, reached more extended zones. Several groundwater samples were withdrawn from wells and piezometers and analyzed. Examining the corresponding physical and chemical parameters showed an increase in the concentrations of nutrients (28 mg/l for NO₃ and 3.97 mg/l for NH₄) in the groundwater aquifer below the irrigation zone, which confirms again the infiltration of treated wastewater effluents. The evolution of soil salinity was examined through chemical analysis of soil samples. Electric conductivities of soils were generally shown to be less than 4 mS/cm while the irrigation water has an electric conductivity that may reach 6.63 mS/cm. This might be explained by the phenomenon of dilution and the capacity of soils to evacuate salts downward.     

Major ion chemistry of groundwater in the extreme arid region northwest China

The Ejina Basin, located in arid northwest China, is one of the most arid areas in the world. In recent years, rapid development has created a greater demand for water which is increasingly fulfilled by groundwater abstraction. Detailed knowledge of geochemical evolution of groundwater and water quality can improve the understanding of a hydrochemical system, and promote sustainable development and effective management of groundwater resources. To this end, a hydrochemical survey was conducted in the Ejina Basin in order to identify the major hydrochemical characteristics. The results of chemical analysis indicate that groundwater in the area is brackish. The major ions, TDS, and hydrochemical types of different areas are highly variable and show an obvious zonation from the recharge area to the discharge area. Saturation index (SI), calculated according to the ionic ration plot, indicates that the gypsum-halite dissolution reactions take place under the condition of the rock weathering to some extent, and evaporation is the dominant factor to determine the major ionic composition in the study area.     

Determination of groundwater availability in shallow arid region aquifers utilizing GIS technology: a case study in Hada Al-Sham, Western Saudi Arabia

A simple, physically based method is developed in this paper to assist in the allocation of areas with high groundwater potential and for the determination of maximum allowed pumping rate to ensure proper groundwater management. This method utilizes the aquifer physical properties as well as GIS technology to accomplish this purpose. The design of this method was considered to be applicable in areas with little data, such as in most arid regions. This technique was applied to a catchment in an arid environment where qualitative as well as quantitative analyses of the results were undertaken. Locations of available groundwater and rates of maximum allowable pumping were compared with observations and experiments in the field and a good agreement was found. It was concluded that the best groundwater location was in the alluvial area, which represents only 16% of the total aquifer, which is a typical case in arid region catchments. The rate of maximum pumping was estimated to be 65 m³/h. However, to benefit 55% of the area, the maximum pumping rate should only be 40 m³/h with an average rate throughout the area (55%) of about 24 m³/h.This revised version was published online in December 2004 with corrections to the category.     

Hydrogeochemical controls on shallow alluvial groundwater under agricultural land: case study in central Portugal

A hydrogeochemical study employing graphical, multivariate statistical, and modeling tools was conducted in an area of alluvial deposits in the Mondego river basin, to determine the factors and processes controlling the shallow groundwater chemistry. Groundwater was collected from 29 observation wells in six sampling campaigns, between March 2001 and September 2002. Samples were analyzed for basic physicochemical parameters, major ions and some minor ions. Hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to the data set, including both the spatial and temporal monitoring data and resulted in the definition of eight distinct water types. With the aid of hydrochemical (and physicochemical) scatter plots, it was possible to identify the main processes controlling the groundwater chemistry: (1) evapotranspiration and recharge; (2) calcium and magnesium carbonate and CO₂ dissolution; (3) nitrate leaching from agriculture; (4) oxidation and reduction; and (5) cation exchange. These processes are frequently common to more than one water type but unique in combination and/or extent, in space and/or time. Geochemical modeling of the water types (using PHREEQC) allowed the validation and, to a certain extent, quantification of the processes that affect the shallow groundwater evolution. These tools can provide an essential support for the assessment of groundwater vulnerability to contamination and for the elaboration of groundwater resource management strategies.     

Spatial relationship of groundwater arsenic distribution with regional topography and water-table fluctuations in the shallow aquifers in Bangladesh

The present study has examined the relationship of groundwater arsenic (As) levels in alluvial aquifers with topographic elevation, slope, and groundwater level on a large basinal-scale using high-resolution (90 m × 90 m) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) digital elevation model and water-table data in Bangladesh. Results show that high As (>50 μg/l) tubewells are located in low-lying areas, where mean surface elevation is approximately 10 m. Similarly, high As concentrations are found within extremely low slopes (<0.7°) in the country. Groundwater elevation (weekly measured by Bangladesh Water Development Board) was mapped using water-table data from 950 shallow (depth <100 m) piezometers distributed over the entire country. The minimum, maximum and mean groundwater elevation maps for 2003 were generated using Universal Kriging interpolation method. High As tubewells are located mainly in the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna delta, Sylhet Trough, and recent floodplains, where groundwater elevation in shallow aquifers is low with a mean value of 4.5 m above the Public Works Datum (PWD) level. Extremely low groundwater gradients (0.01–0.001 m/km) within the GBM delta complex hinder groundwater flow and cause slow flushing of aquifers. Low elevation and gentle slope favor accumulation of finer sediments, As-carrying iron-oxyhydroxide minerals, and abundant organic matter within floodplains and alluvial deposits. At low horizontal hydraulic gradients and under reducing conditions, As is released in groundwater by microbial activity, causing widespread contamination in the low-lying deltaic and floodplain areas, where As is being recycled with time due to complex biogeochemical processes.     

Distribution of groundwater salinity and formation mechanism of fresh groundwater in an arid desert transition zone

This study reviews the distribution of groundwater salinity in an arid desert transition zone. By combining field experiments and computer simulation models we make a comprehensive analysis of the formation mechanism of fresh groundwater in relation to the paleogeographic conditions of lithofacies, the geochemical characteristics of the aquifer media, salt deliverability in the vadose zone and prevailing hydrodynamic conditions. The results demonstrate that (1) the lacustrine facies deposition stratum of the Huanhe formation in the Cretaceous system provides a brackish-salt groundwater environment; (2) the average salinity of parent rocks are approximately 440 mg/kg and 4 371 mg/kg in the Quaternary eolian sand and the Cretaceous Huanhe formation respectively, suggesting that parent rocks are the principal controlling factor in the distribution of groundwater quality given that mineral and chemical composition of the eolian sand is simpler than that of the Huanhe formation; (3) average groundwater flow rates are approximately 0.25 m/d and 0.1 m/d in eolian sand and Huanhe formation aquifers respectively, indicating that hydrodynamic conditions play an important role in driving in the formation and evolution of fresh groundwater; (4) The salinity deliverability in the vadose zone overlying the aeolian sand and Huanhe formation aquifers are approximately 15.97 mg/L and 220.42 mg/L respectively, signifying that the combination of lithology and salt content of vadose zone, rainfall infiltration, evapotranspiration and concentration heavily influence the formation, distribution and evolution of groundwater quality. This study can provide a scientific basis for the sustainable development and utilization of groundwater resources in arid areas.     

苏锡常地区浅层地下水rNa/rCl特征及其成因初探

本文从苏锡常地区浅层地下水含水介质及包气带沉积环境的角度,阐明了浅层地下水中Cl-和Na 浓度东高西低的分布特征。根据数据分析,浅层地下水中Na 与Cl-的毫克当量比值rNa/rCl与海侵形成的沉积环境和沉积历史关系密切。地下水淡化历史越长,含水层介质中吸附的Na 与地下水中的Ca2 和Mg2 之间的阳离子交换吸附程度越高,大量的Na 进入地下水中,使得rNa/rCl比值越高。     

Characterization of the shallow groundwater system in an area with thin soils and sinkholes

Door County, Wisconsin, is a region of karst topography underlain by Silurian dolomite bedrock. Numerous sinkholes intercept much of the surface runoff and act as sites for direct groundwater recharge. The clay-rich and impermeable Upper Ordovician Maquoketa formation separates the dolomite aquifer from the deeper aquifers and appears to be a factor in groundwater circulation and karst formation Thin glacial drift and Quaternary materials overlie the dolomite and are hydrologically connected with it The interactions of surface and groundwater, and the role of solution features in water interchange were studied in a small drainage basin. This basin contains several large sinkholes and a nearby spring complex Mapping identified many additional sinks and swallets in surface drainage routes Water flowing into two sinks was traced and found to have a residence time of several hours. Water flowing into sinkholes and from the spring was sampled to identify the quality and seasonal trends in composition of the shallow groundwater Water quality parameters monitored include magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphorous, nitrate and ammonia, nitrogen, alkalinity, pH, turbidity, and specific conductance. Nitrate levels were found to increase 5 to 6 times during periods when there was zero input through sinkhole recharge sites. Nitrate levels approached the 10 mg/l NO₃ ⁻-N limit set by the U.S. Public Health Service for drinking water In this basin sandy soils are most susceptible to sink development, whereas clay-rich soils have a lesser number of sinks. It appears, however, that a network of bedrock solution features exists under all soils The loss of soil into sinkholes has impacted groundwater quality and reduced agricultural productivity through a reduction in tillable acreage and water retention capacity.     

Structural controls on groundwater flow in a fractured bedrock aquifer underlying an agricultural region of northwestern New Brunswick,Canada

A hydrogeological study was conducted in northwestern New Brunswick, Canada, to improve the predictability of fracture-dominated groundwater flow within folded bedrock composed of fine-grained turbidites. Borehole televiewer logging and outcrop mapping, integrated with hydraulic packer tests revealed enhanced hydraulic conductivity associated with northeasterly striking bedding-plane fractures formed during folding and flexural slip. These fractures impart azimuthal anisotropy to the aquifer because of moderately dipping fold limbs. High-angle fractures form a well-developed non-stratabound network, comprising two open fracture sets striking NNE parallel to the current direction of principal stress, and WNW parallel to the direction of principal stress that dominated during the Acadian orogeny. The subset of fractures showing significant oxidation, deemed most important to the groundwater flow system, is dominated by bedding-plane and high-angle fractures striking near-parallel to the maximum principal stress direction, resulting in extensional opening and enhanced hydraulic conductivities. An equivalent porous media model, incorporating anisotropy and varying hydraulic conductivity with depth, indicates that horizontal flow dominates the aquifer with relatively minor exchange between different model layers. These findings have implications for understanding flow directions in the Black Brook Watershed and elsewhere in the Matapédia Basin where fractures formed under similar stress conditions.     

Anthropogenic contamination of groundwater with nitrate in arid region: case study of southern Hodna (Algeria)

In southern Hodna, an arid region of Algeria, the extension of irrigated agriculture and overexploitation of groundwaters have led to a rupture with traditional land use by pastoralism. Due to the arid conditions, groundwaters are the only water resources for man and irrigation. This study focuses on nitrate contamination of groundwaters and its increase since the last 40 years, on the basis of two archives and recent analyses. The chemical facies of waters is sulphate-chloride, the risk of salinity is moderate to large. The sodicity risk, as estimated by the SAR, is low due to the large salinity and the sandy soil texture. Nitrate contamination of deep groundwater is a clear evidence when recent data are compared to the historical data. From 1996 to 2008, the proportion of samples with NO ₃ ^? concentrations larger than 50 mg/L increases from 24 to 61 %, the proportion of samples with NO ₃ ^? concentrations larger than 100 mg/L increases from 12 to 27 %. The study points at a general contamination of aquifers from anthropic origin: phreatic water was already contaminated when pastoralism was dominant (1967); as population increased and irrigation agriculture developed with large use of N-fertilizers and organic amendments, contamination extended spatially and vertically to deep aquifer. To remediate this contamination, fertilizers should be fractionated and limited to plant requirements on the basis of soil and plant analyses. Excess of irrigation should be avoided. Soil surface should be continuously covered to prevent nitrate leaching. Secondly, more efficient irrigation techniques, such as localized irrigation, should be implemented, with adaptation of crop systems and fertilizer inputs to arid conditions. Farmers should then be trained; simultaneously, local agronomic references that are presently lacking should be acquired.