Secondary aspects of the harnessing of the Rh?ne (not considering the question of energy)

Since a 1921 law the harnessing of the Rhône River from Lyon to the Mediterranean has been directed by a national company composed of the public sector (fromthe valley) as well as of various consumers or distributors of current such as the SNCF or the EDF. This company, the National Company of the Rhône (CNR), was a precursor to the establishment of the TVA in the United States, although it did not begin operations until aftetr the TVA due to prolonged technical negotiations and to the difficulties involved in locating financial support in a period of economic crisis. Even though the utilization of hydraulic power constitutes the prime aim of the CNR, it has also focused on navigation, irration and other agricultural uses from the outset.This article will not further discuss the hydro-electric stations on the Rhône which usually supply more than 22% of French hydro-electric output from thirteen stations now in operation (total power is 2,350 MW and annual average output is 13,000 GWh). This paper will treat the question of the nature and importance of the side effects of the harnessing of the Rhône apart from its essential energy function.     

The notion of “distinguishability” between bulk elastic parameters on the basis of the Gibbs deformation energy

The present work aims in discussing a principle that distinguishes between elastic parameters sets, $ \{ \Upphi \} \equiv \{ K_{0} , \, K^{\prime}, \, V_{0} ,\ldots\} The present work aims in discussing a principle that distinguishes between elastic parameters sets, { \Upphi } o { K₀ ,  K^￠,  V₀ ,?} \{ \Upphi \} \equiv \{ K_{0} , \, K^{\prime}, \, V_{0} ,\ldots\} , on the basis of an energetic criterion: once a reference set, { \Upphi_R } \{ \Upphi_{R} \} , is given, another one can be fixed, { \Upphi _min } \left\{ {\Upphi_{ \min } } \right\} , so that they are as close as possible to each other, but yield non-equivalent deformation energy curves \Updelta G({ \Upphi } )_\textdeform \Updelta G(\{ \Upphi \} )_{\text{deform}} , i.e. they give \Updelta G({ \Upphi_R } )_\textdeform \Updelta G(\{ \Upphi_{R} \} )_{\text{deform}} and \Updelta G({ \Upphi _min } )_\textdeform \Updelta G(\{ \Upphi_{ \min } \} )_{\text{deform}} such that | \Updelta G({ \Upphi _min } )_\textdeform - \Updelta G({ \Upphi_R } )_\textdeform | 3 1×s[\Updelta G_\textdeform ]. \left| {\Updelta G(\{ \Upphi_{ \min } \} )_{\text{deform}} - \Updelta G(\{ \Upphi_{R} \} )_{\text{deform}} } \right| \ge 1\times \sigma [\Updelta G_{\text{deform}} ]. ΔG _deform, calculated using the equation of state (EoS), and its uncertainty σ[ΔG _deform], obtained by a propagation of the errors affecting { \Upphi } \{ \Upphi \} are crucial to fix which mineral assemblage forms at P–T conditions and allow one to assess the reliability of such a prediction. We explore some properties related to the principle introduced, using the average values of the elastic parameters found in literature and related uncertainties for di-octahedral mica, olivine, garnet and clinopyroxene. Two elementary applications are briefly discussed: the effect of refining V ₀ in fitting EoSs to P–V experimental data, in the case of garnet and omphacite, and the phengite 3T–2M ₁ relative stability, controlled by pressure.     

Contrasting rock permeability in the aureole of the Ballachulish igneous complex, Scottish Highlands: the influence of surface energy?

The Ballachulish igneous complex in the Scottish Highlands, part of a widespread group of late Caledonian calcalkaline intrusions, was emplaced at a depth of 10 km into Dalradian metasediments resulting in melting of the country rocks near the intrusive contact. The greatest extent of melting occurred in the Leven schist in the 400 m wide so-called Chaotic Zone which experienced infiltration of aqueous fluids from the pluton. In contrast, adjacent to the Chaotic Zone, the feldspar-bearing Appin quartzite underwent significant melting only within a few metres of the intrusion, despite both being in contact with the same fluid source as the Leven schist and having a similar (wet) melting point. The permeability of the Appin quartzite and quartz horizons in the Leven schist to pervasive grain-edge infiltration of aqueous fluids was determined by measuring the equilibrium quartz-H₂O dihedral angle for the P-T conditions of contact metamorphism. Addition of powdered samples of both rock types to the pure quartz-H₂O system results in a linear decrease of the quartz-H₂O dihedral angle with increasing temperature. The rate of this decrease for the Leven schist is greater than that for the Appin quartzite, and the angle decreases below 60° some 30 °C below the wet solidus (670 °C at 0.3 GPa). Charges bearing Appin quartzite had dihedral angles greater than 60° at all temperatures below the wet solidus (690 °C at 0.3 GPa). These results demonstrate that quartz-rich horizons in the Leven schist would have been permeable to infiltration of aqueous fluids close to the solidus, permitting extensive H₂O-fluxed melting to occur. The Appin quartzite would have remained impermeable to grain-edge flow, consistent with the observed differences in the extent of partial melting of the two lithologies. Received: 25 November 1996 / Accepted: 29 October 1997     

Coexistence and inherence of diverse energy resources in the Ordos Basin, China

1 Introduction In recent years rapid economic developmentbadly needs energy resources. Exploration andexploitation of more kinds of energy resources shouldbe intensified to meet this need. According to presentliterature, oil/gas fields, coal fields as we…     

Development of hydrogen energy and environment

From primitive wood to nowadays fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, it can be seen that the forms of energy becomes more and more diverse and the core trend of decarburization is also obvious （the rate of the element of H to C ranging from 1/10, 1/2-1, 2, to 4 in wood, coal, oil and natural gas, respectively）. Although the content of C in current main fuels becomes less and less, the excess exploitation and extensive utilization of various fossil fuels are widely recognized to be responsible for the deterioration of the environment （greenhouse effect, acid rain, photochemical pollution, etc.）. With the roar consumption of energy to maintain the development of human society and taking the environmental problems into consideration, it is inevitable to develop renewable energy containing more H and less C as possible. Under these circumstances, the development of H2 energy is the certain and ultimate choice for its high energy per unit, diversity resources, no pollution to environment and ideal renewable utilization cycle. There are so many methods and ways were employed to develop HE energy, such as electrolysis, methane stream reforming process, coal gasification, etc., but there lies two main problems in current methods and ways, those are the cost of bulk of first energy to extract HE from fossil raw materials and still facing the problems of C deposition （carbon dioxide）. Consequently, if considering the cost and environmental issues, the development of HE energy must resort to renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy to extract HE from water. Based on this context, the development of HE energy by semiconductor photocatalyst to split water into HE and O2 under the irradiation of solar energy, photocatalysis process in short word, is one of the most promising ways. In this review, the importance and necessity to develop hydrogen energy were intensively studied based on the relationship between energy consumption and environment effect. Then the current ways and methods to develop hydrogen were reviewed, especially the state-of-the-art photocatalysis process （from the semiconductor photocatalyst materials perspective）.     

Solidification of the Earth’s core: The main energy source in the formation of trappean provinces and flood basalts

The discovery of a layer of increased density in the liquid core at the boundary with the solid core gives grounds to suggest that solidification of the solid core occurs with an increase in total core volume and is accompanied by an increase in internal pressure in the core. This makes it possible to suggest a translational mechanism of energy transfer from the core to the Earth’s surface. It is suggested that the restoration of lithostatic equilibrium occurs via rising of a column of mantle material, uplift as result of elastic mantle deformation of the boundary of the transition layer at a depth of 420 km, and the formation of rising at the surface.     

Do subsidies improve the financial performance of renewable energy companies? Evidence from China

Natural Hazards - The promotion of renewable energy cannot be separated from the support provided by government subsidies. However, the effect of government subsidies is controversial. Taking...     

The impact of surface energy exchange on the thawing process of active layer over the northern Qinghai–Xizang Plateau,China

In this study, we collected radiation and active layer temperature data observed in the northern Qinghai–Xizang Plateau during the period 2006–2008 in order to analyze the impact of surface energy balance on the thawing process of the active layer. Results show that surface energy exhibits an obvious seasonal variation. The largest values of energy variables including global radiation, net radiation, soil heat flux and surface heat source intensity occur during June and July, while the smallest values occur in November and December. The active layer is generally dominated by an endothermic process. During the freeze–thaw period, the variation process of the active layer temperature is similar to that of surface energy. The seasonal thawing depth is closely related to the process of surface energy exchange. During the thawing period, seasonal thawing depth gradually increases as more solar energy enters the surface. When the surface energy accumulation is 0.0 MJ m^?2 d^?1, the seasonal thawing depth is the smallest. The seasonal thawing depth gradually increases with further accumulation of surface energy. Thus, the variation processes between the surface energy and seasonal thawing depth can be expressed by a power relation. The values of seasonal thawing depth calculated with the empirical relationship provided in this study agree well with the observed values. The relative error between calculated and observed values is less than 12 %. These results show that this empirical relationship can be successfully used to describe the behavior of active layers.     

Sobol’ sensitivity analysis of parameters in the common land model for simulation of water and energy fluxes

The water and energy transfer of land surface is complex due to its large spatial and temporal variability. The modeling and simulation is an important means to study land water and energy transfer, but most selection and analysis of model parameters are empirical and qualitative. This paper has proposed a method of quantitatively identifying the most influential parameters of Common Land Model through Sobol?? sensitivity analysis. Considering sensible heat flux as the model output, the first order and total sensitivity indices of 25 model input parameters are estimated using an improved Sobol?? method. The simulated results are resampled using a bootstrapping method and the corresponding sensitivity indices are calculated. Confidence intervals for the bootstrapping sensitivity indices are estimated by using a percentile method. The results show that the parameters phi0 and porsl are the most important parameters, followed by ref(2,1), tran(2,1) and bsw. Five out of 25 parameters need to have an accurate evaluation, while the other parameters are fixed to a certain value. The sensitivity indices of parameters phi0 and porsl are decreasing after precipitation, while the sensitivity indices of parameters tran(2, 1) and ref(2, 1) are increasing after precipitation.     

“We Don’t Take the Pledge”: Environmentality and environmental skepticism at the epicenter of US wind energy development

This study analyzes pro-wind, “anti-environmental” discourses prevalent among key stakeholders in Nolan County, Texas, the epicenter of US wind power. We draw upon interviews conducted within a Q-method study to examine environmental views held by key actors in wind-farm development. We frame our analysis within the theoretical field that engages the formation of environmental subjects, defined as the process through which individuals and communities align their environmental practices with state ends. We argue that this is a process that can be incomplete or in tension with other subject positions, which together may lead to unexpected environmental views. We introduce “environmental skepticism,” defined as a rejection of ecological science steeped in deep anthropocentrism and possessive individualism, as a dominant counter-narrative informing certain environmental subjectivities. The remainder of the paper describes Texas wind stakeholders’ views or subject positions on energy and the environment and reveals how environmental skepticism is not overturned even as renewable energy supports the local economy. We analyze wind stakeholders’ environmental subjectivity in terms of emergent subject positions as “reflexive environmental skepticism,” a view that accepts the economic products, processes, and policy innovations advocated by ecological modernization without accepting the core claim that innovations are required to adapt to environmental change.     

The total-factor energy productivity growth of China’s construction industry: evidence from the regional level

This study uses the total-factor energy productivity change index (TFEPCH) to investigate the changes in energy productivity of construction industry for 30 provincial regions in China from 2006 to 2015, adopting the improved Luenberger productivity index combined with the directional distance function. In addition to traditional economic output indicator, this study introduces building floor space under construction as a physical output indicator for energy productivity evaluation. The TFEPCH was decomposed into energy technical efficiency change and energy technical progress shift. Results indicate that, first, energy productivity of China’s construction industry decreased by 7.1% annually during 2006–2015. Energy technical regress, rather than energy technical efficiency, contributed most to the overall decline in energy productivity of China’s construction industry. Second, energy productivity in the central region of China decreased dramatically, by a cumulative sum of approximately 77.1%, since 2006, while energy productivity in the eastern and western regions decreased by over 54.3 and 65.3%, respectively. Only two of the 30 provinces considered—Hebei and Shandong—improved their energy productivity during 2006–2015. The findings presented here provide a basis for decision-making and references for administrative departments to set differentiated energy efficiency goals and develop relevant measures. Additionally, the findings are highly significant for energy and resource allocation of Chinese construction industry in different regions.     

First Determination of the Isotope Age of the Andesite–Dacite Complex of the Eastern Zone of the Middle Urals

Doklady Earth Sciences - This paper reports on the first U–Pb dating of zircons from dacites of the volcanic paleo-edifice of the andesite–dacite complex of the Eastern Zone of the...     

Analysis of the degree of contamination and evolution in the last 100 years of the composition of the bed sediments of the Anllóns Basin

In this study, five cores of the Anllóns River bed sediments were analyzed in order to evaluate the downcore and downstream variations in their chemical composition. The first step was the evaluation of the metal distribution in the bulk (<2 mm) and fine fractions (<63 μm). The analysis revealed that most of the metals followed the same trend in both fractions, although the fine fraction presented usually higher concentrations. However, the concentration of both fractions tended to equalize with increasing contamination. No general increase was observed in the metal concentrations toward the surface which could be attributed to recent anthropogenic contributions. Instead, the distributions were homogeneous or peaked at various depths downcore. The most important historical feature was observed at the mouth of the river, at 96-cm depth, corresponding to the end of the eighteenth century. Upcore increased metal concentrations in parallel with increased fine fraction occurred from this depth, which were attributed to a bridge construction and consequent changes in sediment dynamics. As the metal concentrations can be influenced by variations in texture or other sediment characteristics, the second step was to evaluate the efficiency of several normalized indexes in the assessment of the degree of contamination, by calculating the enrichment factor (EF), the geoaccumulation index (I _GEO) and the pollution load index (PLI). The EFs obtained were <10, thus revealing little anthropogenic inputs to the basin. The I _GEO produced higher values when compared with the EFs. Instead of absolute EF or I _GEO absolute values, the use of cumulative probability plots allowed identifying more accurately potential outliers indicating contamination. Only one population was identified for Zn and Pb, with a reduced number of outliers at the highest concentrations for Pb. As shown, a more complex plot with the outliers identified at C4 and C5. Finally, the PLI allowed determining the absence of a significant contamination in the bed sediments. The bioavailable and non-geogenic fractions contribute up to a 90% of the total concentrations in the case of As and Cu, and showed similar (dissimilar) profiles in comparison with total metals. Also, the quality guidelines were surpassed, so the high solubility of As, Zn, Pb and Ni in the sediments revealed the need to monitor the bed sediment quality of the Anllóns River.     

Present-day tectonics of the western part of the Dzhugdzhur–Stanovoi Terrane of the southeastern frame of the North Asian Craton

The first results on current movements are presented for the western part of the Dzhugdzhur–Stanovoi Terrane based on GPS geodesy of a geodynamic survey area of the Upper Amur region. Processing of the GPS data resulted in a vector field of the displacement rates of points of the geodynamic survey area with zones of intense deformations. It was concluded from a comprehensive analysis of geological–geophysical data and estimates of the displacement rates that the terrane is characterized by kinematic integrity and was subjected to a complex of tectonic factors related to the evolution of the eastern segment of Baikal Rift Zone in the area of transpression interaction of the Eurasian and Amur plates.     

Bursting the limits of time： the reconstruction of geohistory in the age of revolution

Bursting the Limits of Time by the distin- guished historian of geology Martin Rudwick is a massive, two-part book. The first part contains what he calls a synchronous history of what eventually became historical geology in western Europe between the time of de Sans- sure＇s epoch-making ascent of Mont Blanc in 1787 and the discovery of the Kirkdale hyaena cave by Buckland in the winter of 1821-1822,     

Features of the Influence of Weather Conditions on the Deformation Processes of the Upper Layer of the Earth’s Crust

Doklady Earth Sciences - The influence of the temperature and moisture content of the near-surface soil layer on variations of the barodeformation interaction of the boundary layer of the...     

Numerical Modeling of the Effects of Major Elements on the Solubility of Chrome–Spinel and a Likely Solution of the Problem of the Origin of Chromitite

Doklady Earth Sciences - The influence of variations in fo-, fa-, en-, fs-, di-, an-, and ab-components in a high-Mg basaltic melt on the topology of the spinellide liquidus was analyzed using the...     

On the Origin of the Carat as the Unit of Weight for Gemstones

The carat is the unit of weight for diamonds and other gemstones.It corresponds to the average weight of the seeds of a leguminous tree.What kind of tree is this?We have studied the samples from Ethiopia,Egypt,Cyprus and the United States.The tree is neither“Kuara“nor“Locust“（Robina pseudoacacia Linn.）,but rather Carob(Ceratonia Siliqua).In Ethiopia,as called by local inhabitants,“Kuara“is a species of Erythrina-E.brucei rather than E.abyssinica.As might be expected,using the seeds as a means of weighing an extremely valuable commodity is not very scientific.Before 1907,at various times and in various countries,there were at least twenty-three stan-dards for the carat ranging from 187.00mg to 215.990mg.The metric carat equal to 200mg was proposed in Paris in 1907.It was adopted in the United States on July1,1913 and now is the world-accepted standard.But in reality,the standard of the carat is still confused with respect to its usage throughout the world .This is why the author reiterates that the standard of the car-at should be integrated with the metric system.     

The Nature of the “Voice of the Sea”

Strong vibrations of the Earth’s crust in the frequency range of 7–9 Hz, referred to as the “voice of the sea,” have been recorded in the course of processing synchronous experimental data obtained during recording of variations in the deformation of the Earth’s crust using a shore laser strainmeter, atmosphere pressure variations using a laser nanobarograph, and hydrosphere pressure variations using a laser meter for hydrospheric pressure and wind velocity variations. The nature of these vibrations and their transformation to adjacent geospheres have been discussed.