Inextensible reinforcement on non‐linear elasto‐plastic subgrade under oblique pull

In this paper, a rational analysis of pullout resistance of inextensible sheet reinforcement subjected to oblique end force has been presented considering a non‐linear (hyperbolic), elasto‐plastic, normal stress–displacement relationship of the subgrade. Under an oblique pull, high normal stresses develop on stronger subgrades, thus mobilizing high shearing resistance at the reinforcement–soil interface. The higher the bearing resistance of the subgrade, the higher the horizontal component of pullout force and the lower the end displacement of the reinforcement. On the other hand, the end displacement at pullout can become very high for weaker subgrades especially at high values of the angle of obliquity. Also, the pullout capacity under oblique loading for weaker subgrades may approach or even fall below the axial pullout capacity at high values of the angle of obliquity. These adverse pullout responses owing to a low value of bearing resistance of subgrade are magnified when the subgrade stiffness is also small. On weaker subgrades, improvement in angle of interface shear is not advisable as this leads to further reduction in the pullout force and increase in the end displacement. Results are compared with back analysis of published test data on model reinforced soil walls. The comparison suggests that the present model leads to a more rational and better prediction of the pullout failure. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

土工织物与吹填土界面作用特性试验研究

筋-土界面强度参数是加筋结构设计和稳定分析的关键技术指标。拉拔试验能较好模拟现场加筋行为而得到广泛的应用。基于拉拔和直剪试验研究了拉拔（剪切）速率对筋-土界面特性和吹填砂强度特性的影响规律及机制,同时探讨了不同填料界面、筋材类型的加筋效果。结果表明：随着拉拔（剪切）速率的增大,吹填砂-筋材-吹填砂界面的抗剪强度下降明显,而软土-筋材-吹填砂界面以及砂本身强度则变化不大。从强度指标来看,拉拔速率增大,筋-砂界面强度的降低主要表现为似黏聚力的降低,筋-软土界面抗剪强度的增加表现为内摩擦角增大,剪切速率对吹填砂则基本无影响。筋-土界面特性受拉拔速率和正应力的共同影响,与筋材类型和填料特性有关。筋-土界面内摩擦角小于填料摩擦角,但在一定正应力下低速剪切时（如<0.53 mm/min）可获得高于填料的抗剪强度。宜根据似黏聚力大小合理选择摩擦参数进行加筋结构的设计与评价。     

带加强肋土工格栅的极限拉拔阻力分析

在立体加筋体系研究基础上,提出了带加强肋土工格栅加筋,即通过对普通土工格栅的肋进行加强处理,使其肋具有一定的竖向厚度,构成具有立体加筋效果的带加强肋土工格栅。采用染色砂法,通过带加强肋土工格栅的拉拔试验进行了拉拔力机理分析。在拉拔过程中,加强肋前方土体会首先被挤密加强,成为一个刚性的楔体,然后刚性楔与筋材一起运动成为一个土筋共同体。推导了带加强肋土工格栅加筋土的拉拔阻力模型,分析中将加强肋的侧阻力作用简化为侧向土压力的作用,采用极限平衡理论,通过两侧的主动土压力与被动土压力进行计算。根据所建立的拉拔阻力模型计算出带加强肋土工格栅加筋的极限拉拔阻力,并与试验结果进行了对比,两者基本吻合     

Interaction of Ribbed-Metal-Strip Reinforcement with Tire Shred–Sand Mixtures

There is a pressing need of finding innovative and beneficial ways of using scrap tires in the construction of various geotechnical structures because a large number of waste tires are generated and discarded every year throughout the world. One example of such geotechnical application is the use of tire shreds mixed with soil as a backfill material for mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls. In this paper, we report the results of laboratory pullout tests performed to study the interaction between ribbed-metal-strip reinforcement and tire shred–sand mixtures prepared with various tire shred sizes (9.5 mm in nominal size, 50–100 mm in length, and 100–200 mm in length) and tire shred-to-sand mixing ratios (tire shred contents of 0, 12, 25, 100% by weight). The pullout capacities of ribbed metal strips embedded in tire shred–sand mixtures were obtained for three confining pressures (40, 65, and 90 kPa). The test results showed that the pullout capacity of ribbed metal strips embedded in tire shred–sand mixtures is much higher than that of ribbed metal strips embedded in samples prepared with only tire shreds. Based on the laboratory pullout test results, an equation was developed that can be used to estimate the pullout capacity of ribbed metal strips embedded in tire shred–sand mixtures if the tire shred size, compacted unit weight of the mixture, mean particle size of sand, and vertical effective stress acting at the interface are known.     

剪切速率和材料特性对筋-土界面抗剪强度的影响

土工合成材料与填料之间的界面强度参数是加筋-土工程设计的关键技术指标,筋-土界面的直剪试验和拉拔试验在界面剪切特性试验研究中应用最为广泛。利用土工格栅、土工织物与砂土的直剪试验和拉拔试验,研究了剪切速率和筋材性质对筋-土界面强度的影响。研究结果表明,当剪切速率不超过一定界限（如7.0 mm/min）时,其对直剪试验结果的影响可以忽略;筋-土界面强度受加筋材料及砂土特性的影响,双向聚丙烯土工格栅和土工织物与砂土之间的内摩擦角与纯砂接近,界面强度较高,而玻纤格栅因其延伸率低和网格尺寸较小,与砂土的界面强度比较低。     

土工格栅与土界面作用特性试验研究

土工格栅与土的界面摩擦特性指标是加筋土工程设计的关键。通过分析土工格栅与土的界面摩擦作用和进行了直剪摩擦试验和拉拔摩擦试验,测试了两种试验条件的界面摩擦特性。在两种试验条件下,土工格栅加筋土复合体的抗剪强度均有界面摩擦角φsq和界面凝聚力csq,且土工格栅与土相对位移量的不同,其复合体的强度机理有区别。在拉拔摩擦试验中,剪应力峰值强度对应的剪切变形值高于直剪摩擦试验中剪应力峰值强度的剪切变形值5～10倍以上。两种试验均有其适用性,而土与土工格栅的相对位移较小时直剪摩擦试验较能反映实际;土与土工格栅相对位移较大时土与格栅双面均发生相对位移,拉拔摩擦试验更为合适。随法向应力的增大,直剪摩擦和拉拔摩擦试验的剪应力峰值以及剪应力峰值对应的位移均提高。直剪摩擦的剪切速度小,剪应力峰值强度高,且达到峰值强度的剪切位移大;增加剪切速度,剪应力峰值强度降低,且对应的位移也减少,其原因是界面上的孔隙水压力消散和筋材的应力松弛。应根据具体工程的需要选择直剪摩擦试验和拉拔摩擦试验确定设计参数。     

Reliability Based Earthquake Resistant Design for Internal Stability of Reinforced Soil Structures

This paper presents a method to evaluate reliability for internal stability of reinforced soil structures using reliability based design optimization. Using limit equilibrium method and assuming the failure surface to be logarithmic spiral, analysis is conducted to maintain internal stability against both tensile and pullout failure of the reinforcements. Properties of backfill soil and strength of the geosynthetic reinforcement are considered as random variables. For the seismic conditions, reliability indices of all the geosynthetic layers in relation to tension and pullout failure modes are determined for different magnitudes of seismic accelerations both in the horizontal and vertical directions, surcharge load and design strength of the reinforcement. The efforts have been made to obtain the number of layers, pullout length and total length of the reinforcement at each level for the desired target reliability index values against tension and pullout modes of failure. The influence of horizontal and vertical earthquake acceleration, surcharge load, design strength of the reinforcement, coefficient of variation of soil friction angle and design strength of the reinforcement on number of layers, pullout length and total length of the reinforcement needed for the stability at each level is discussed.     

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) calibration for steel grid reinforced soil walls

This paper reports the results of load and resistance factor design (LRFD) calibration for pullout and yield limit states for steel grid reinforced soil walls owing to soil self-weight loading plus permanent uniform surcharge. The calibration method uses bias statistics to account for prediction accuracy of the underlying deterministic models for reinforcement load, pullout capacity and yield strength of the steel grids, and random variability in input parameters. A new revised pullout design model is proposed to improve pullout resistance prediction accuracy and to remove hidden dependency with calculated pullout resistance values. Load and resistance factors are proposed that give a uniform probability of failure of 1% for both pullout and yield limit states. The approach adopted in this paper has application to a wide variety of other reinforced soil wall technologies.     

Pseudo Static Seismic Stability Analysis of Reinforced Soil Structures

The paper pertains to the pseudo-static seismic stability analysis of reinforced soil structures. Using limit equilibrium method and assuming the failure surface to be logarithmic spiral, analysis has been conducted to maintain internal stability against both tensile and pullout failure of the reinforcements. The external stability of the reinforced earth wall is also assessed in terms of its sliding, overturning, eccentricity and bearing modes of failure. The influence of the intensity of the surcharge load placed on the backfill is also considered in the analysis. The obtained results are validated by comparing the same with those reported in literature. Studies have also been made regarding the influence of backfill soil friction angle, horizontal and vertical seismic accelerations, surcharge load, the tensile strength of reinforcement, pullout length of the reinforcement and number of reinforcement layers on the seismic stability against various failure modes as mentioned earlier.     

网格状带齿加筋体界面特性的宏细观力学机制研究

网格状带齿加筋是一种新型的土工加筋技术,汲取了传统网格状与条带式带齿加筋的优点,其筋土界面特性是加筋结构设计的基础。利用室内拉拔试验从宏观角度分析筋材与土的界面特性,结合颗粒流程序,筋材用平行黏结模拟,从细观角度分析筋土接触界面的产生和发展演化规律。数值结果表明：齿筋的存在对界面处颗粒的移动及剪切带的宽度影响显著,其破坏模式呈现波浪型,在齿筋附近出现应力集中现象。筋土界面处筋材与土颗粒摩擦、咬合和阻抗作用提供“似黏聚力”是改变网格状带齿加筋体系作用机制的内在原因。研究成果对于明确网格状带齿加筋拉拔的机制及模型的建立都具有意义。     

细砂中钢带-填土废塑料瓶抗拔性能试验研究

研究利用填土废塑料瓶作为横向构件附在加筋土挡墙（MSEWs）中钢带上可行性。配筋中的横向构件对增加抗拔力有重要影响。该加筋系统是由作为纵向构件的钢带和作为横向构件的填土废塑料瓶组成。为更好地研究以填土废塑料瓶作为横向构件对抗拔性能的影响,对一条独立的钢带和分别带有1～7个瓶子的钢带进行了拉拔试验。在不同的法向应力下进行了超过18次的实验室大型拉拔试验（例如拉拔箱尺寸为长1.2 m、宽0.6 m、高1.0 m）来评估新提出的加固元件的性能。试验结果表明,在扁钢带上建立三维空间对提高抗拔阻力影响很大。提高抗拔阻力最有效的方法是在距离S与直径D之比为3的钢带上加入4个横向构件,其平均抗拔阻力约为单独钢带的5倍。有横向构件和无横向构件钢带的极限抗拔阻力随竖向应力的增大而增大。     

自嵌式砌块与双向土工格栅的摩擦强度试验研究

在自嵌式砌块加筋挡土墙工程中,加筋与填土及自嵌式砌块的界面作用特性是最关键的技术指标,直接决定该工程的内部稳定性。通过室内拉拔试验可知,当法向应力大于24.8 kPa时,双向土工格栅会在其与上砌块后缘互锁连接接触处被拉断,而不是从混凝土砌块间被拔出,且此时双向土工格栅发挥出的抗拉强度远小于其条带拉伸情况下的抗拉强度;双向土工格栅与混凝土砌块界面间的强度包线由两段直线组成,当法向应力小于24.8 kPa时,摩擦强度随法向应力的增大而增大;当法向应力大于24.8 kPa时,摩擦强度为一常数。     

A state boundary surface model for improving the dilatancy simulation of granular material in reinforced anchors

It is acknowledged that for extending the experimental results to real scale design, it is necessary to use an appropriate numerical analysis. The good analysis in geotechnical problems needs to adopt a suitable constitutive model for the materials. This paper presents a modeling approach to investigate the complex behavior of granular trench and reinforcement system. For this purpose, an experimental and numerical investigation has been carried out on the behavior of pullout resistance of an embedded anchor (circular plate) with and without geogrid reinforcement layers in stabilized loose and dense sand using a granular trench. Different parameters have been considered, such as number of geogrid layers, embedment ratios, relative density of soil, and height ratios of granular trench. Finite element analysis with Hardening Soil Model was utilized for sand and CANAsand constitutive model was used for granular trench to investigate failure mechanism and the associated rupture surfaces. Results showed that, when soil was improved with the granular-geogrid trench, the uplift force significantly increased, but in geogrid-reinforced granular trench condition, the ultimate pullout resistance at failure increased as the number of geogrid layers increased up to the third layer, the fifth layer had a negligible effect in comparison with the third layer of reinforcement. The ultimate uplift capacity of anchor plate and the variation of surface deformation for all the tests indicated a close agreement between the experimental and numerical models.     

土工格栅加筋砂土中水平锚板抗拔特性试验研究

土工格栅加筋能够有效改善锚板的抗拔承载力,然而锚板在上拔过程中的破坏机制及其影响因素尚需进一步研究。针对砂土中水平锚板的抗拔特性,开展了多组锚板上拔试验,分析了砂土密实度、锚板埋深、土工格栅布设层数和位置等因素的影响,结合粒子图像测速（particle image velocimetry,简称PIV）技术探究了锚板周边土体的变形破坏机制。研究结果表明：单层接触式格栅加筋对锚板的抗拔承载力有明显的提升,且其对土体性能的改善优于非接触式格栅加筋情况,其原因与土工格栅变形量和上覆土体重力有关;当采用双层土工格栅加筋时,下层格栅可充分发挥限制土体侧向变形和均化应力分布的作用,上层格栅相对而言贡献不大;采用土工格栅加筋后,锚-土界面附近土体的变形模式发生了明显的变化,其破坏面相比未加筋前向内侧收敛,且剪应变分布更为均匀。     

Statistical analysis of the effective stress method and modifications for prediction of ultimate bond strength of soil nails

Uncertainty in the predicted ultimate pullout strength of soil nails can be significant due to the complexity of nail–soil interactions, inherent variability in soil properties and the effects of nail installation. The paper first presents a statistical evaluation of the accuracy of ultimate bond strength of soil nails using the effective stress method (ESM) equation that has been adopted in Hong Kong. A total of 113 ultimate nail capacity data points from field pullout tests were collected from the literature and used to estimate the accuracy of the current ESM. Based on the available data, the current ESM default pullout model is found to be excessively conservative (on average) by at least a factor of three. The spread in prediction accuracy measured by the coefficient of variation (COV) of bias is in the range of 36–43 % after removing anomalous test data. Here, bias is the ratio of measured to predicted pullout load capacity. In addition, the accuracy of the current ESM equation for prediction of nail bond strength is shown to be dependent on the magnitude of predicted ultimate bond strength and magnitude of nominal vertical effective stress which is undesirable. The paper examines four candidate-modified bond strength equations with empirical coefficients that have been back-fitted to measured bond strengths to improve the overall accuracy of the equation and to reduce or remove the undesirable dependencies noted above. One equation with an empirically corrected stress-dependent term is judged to be the best candidate model based on the mean of bias values, spread (COV) of bias values, lack of dependencies and simplicity. Finally, the relative contributions of random variability in soil shear strength to measurement bias in bond strength (prediction accuracy) for each soil type are computed for the best bond strength model. Analysis of the contribution of soil shear strength to prediction accuracy showed that the combination of variability due to factors other than soil shear strength was greater than the variability in soil shear strength alone, where the latter is defined by the soil secant friction coefficient.     

A numerical study of the pullout behavior of grout anchors underreamed by pulse discharge technology

Pulse discharge technology (PDT) is an innovative construction method used to enhance the bearing capacity of piles and the resisting capacity of anchors by underreaming using a high-pressure shockwave induced by an underwater electric discharge. This study numerically analyzes the pullout behavior of a grout anchor underreamed by PDT. A series of finite element analyses were performed to examine the pullout behavior of the anchor based on successive simulations from underreaming to subsequent pullout tests. The electric blasting and shockwave generation by PDT was equivalently modeled using the underwater explosion (UNDEX) model, and the appropriate UNDEX parameters were determined by benchmarking the laboratory PDT tests. Full-scale PDT underreaming and the subsequent pullout tests in dry sand deposits reported in the literature were then simulated on the basis of fluid–structure interaction (FSI) analyses and static uplift analyses. The predicted expansion of the borehole and the pullout behaviors were compared with field test results to validate the numerical model. Moreover, the results from a parametric study conducted to investigate the influence of soil and anchor characteristics on the uplift behavior of the PDT underreamed anchor are discussed.     

Soil/Geotextile Interface Behaviour in Direct Shear and Pullout Movements

This paper deals with soil/reinforced geotextile interface behaviour in direct shear and pullout movements. A soil/geosynthetic direct shear apparatus, developed in accordance to EN ISO 12957-1 (2004) and ASTM D5321-92 (1992) standards, is presented. Some details of the test (like: specimen fixation, influence of the vertical stress on the registered horizontal force, type of test and measurement of the vertical displacement) are discussed and modifications in the test procedures are adopted. Then, the reinforced geotextile and the residual soil of granite used in the research are described. The behaviour of soil/geosynthetic interface in direct shear is characterized based on modified direct shear tests and maximum interface shear stress is determined at peak and residual for a confining stress of 50 kPa. The modification in the pullout test apparatus described by Lopes and Ladeira (1996a; 1996b) and by Lopes and Lopes (1999) are noticed. The behaviour of soil/geosynthetic interface in pullout is characterized based on pullout tests performed, in accordance EN 13738 (2004), and interface shear stress at maximum pullout force is defined for a confining stress of 50 kPa. Finally, the values of interface coefficient at soil/geosynthetic interface are obtained in direct shear and in pullout and then compared. The main conclusions that can be outlined from the present study are the following: modifications should be made to EN ISO 12957-1 (2004) standard, namely in what concerns the dependence of the measured horizontal force from the vertical stress, the difficulties to perform constant area direct shear test with the lower half box filled with soil and on the measurement of the vertical displacement of the load plate; on the contrary to which is normally accepted the characteristics of the behaviour of soil/geosynthetic interface in pullout, when the geosynthetic has a full plane contact area with the soil, are not able to be obtained based on results of direct shear tests, as in this type of tests the contribution of the geosynthetic deformation on the characteristics of the interface in pullout is not considered.     

低围压下锚固点应变传感光缆与土体变形耦合性试验研究

应变传感光缆与被测土体之间的耦合性是决定分布式光纤监测准确性的关键。为解决土工模型试验中传感光缆与被测松填砂土间的变形耦合性问题,本文研制了一种锚固点应变传感光缆,并利用自制的光缆-土体耦合性试验装置,开展了相关的光缆拉拔试验,探究了低围压下锚固点对应变传感光缆与砂土之间耦合性的影响及作用机理。研究结果表明:光缆的轴向应变随拉拔位移的增大而增大,但应变传递被限制在0.35 m以内;相同拉拔位移下,锚固点应变传感光缆比普通传感光缆需要更大的拉拔力;锚固点大大降低了应变梯度,使应变在一定范围内呈现出平均化的特征,影响范围为锚固点前后0.05~0.075 m以内。提出了耦合性的提升率指标,以此定量评价锚固点对增强光缆与土体耦合性的作用效果。本次试验中锚固点的提升率为97.41%,表明锚固点可有效增强光缆与土体的耦合性;同时,提出了一个力学模型来模拟锚固点应变传感光缆在松填砂土中的拉拔过程,准确地描述了光缆拉拔力与锚固点受力和光缆表面摩擦力之间的关系。研究成果对于土工模型试验中分布式光纤测试技术的应用提供了科学依据。     

加筋土挡墙地震稳定性的拟动力分析

为研究不同筋材条件下加筋土挡墙地震稳定性,采用两种简化破裂面形式;由于拟静力法的局限和加筋土挡墙的成层特性,对水平和竖向地震力同时作用下的加筋土挡墙,运用拟动力法和水平条分法推导出其筋材拉力总和与临界破裂角的计算公式。算例分析结果表明,筋材拉力总和随着地震加速系数、回填土重度或者滑动体上部超载的增大而增大;随着土体内摩擦角或者填土黏聚力的增大而减小;当条件相同时,可延展性筋材所承受的筋材拉力总和大于不可延展性筋材所承受的。与拟静力法和规范中的方法比较,基于拟动力法的加筋土挡墙的设计也更加经济。     

Pullout Response of Uniaxial Geogrid in Tire Shred–Sand Mixtures

Use of tire shred–soil mixtures as backfill materials in mechanically stabilized earth walls has several advantages over other backfill materials: (1) good drainage, (2) high shear strength, and (3) low compacted unit weight. This paper presents the results of laboratory pullout tests performed on uniaxial geogrid embedded in tire shred–sand mixtures. The effects of tire shred size, tire shred–sand mixing ratio and confining pressure on the interaction between the geogrid and tire shred–sand mixtures are evaluated. Three sizes of tire shreds are considered: tire chips (with 9.5 mm nominal size), tire shreds 50-to-100 mm long and tire shreds 100-to-200 mm in length, with mixing ratios of 0, 12, 25 and 100 % of tire shreds in the mixtures (by weight). Based on compaction testing of a number of mixtures, the optimal mixing proportion of tire shreds and sand was found to lie between 25/75 and 30/70 (by weight of tire shred and sand); this is equivalent to approximately 40/60 and 50/50, respectively, by volume of tire shreds and sand. The pullout resistance of a geogrid embedded in tire shred–sand mixtures is significantly higher than that of the same geogrid embedded in tire shreds only. The size of the tire shreds has negligible effect on the pullout resistance of a geogrid embedded in mixtures prepared with either low (12/88 mix) or high (100/0 mix) tire shred content. However, when the 25/75 mixture is used, greater geogrid pullout resistance was obtained for the geogrid embedded in tire chip–sand mixtures than in tire shred–sand mixtures.