Numerical Analysis of Multi Layer Geosynthetic-Reinforced Granular Bed over Soft Fill

In this paper, considering the plain strain conditions, a numerical study has been conducted to investigate the behavior of multi layer geosynthetic-reinforced granular bed overlying a soft soil using the Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua (FLAC) program. The granular fill, soft soil, and geosynthetic reinforcements are considered as linear elastic materials. The geosynthetic reinforcements are modeled as cable elements fully bonded with the surrounding soil, thus neglecting any slip. The results obtained from the present investigation showed very close agreement when compared with the results of finite element analysis and lumped parameter modeling. The distribution of vertical, lateral and shear stresses in the soil are greatly affected as the number of reinforcement layers is increased. If the tensile stiffness of geosynthetic layers increases and its value is no more than 4,000–5,000 kN/m, the settlement of the reinforced foundation decreases significantly. The reduction in settlement is insignificant when the tensile strength of the geosynthetics exceed the above value.     

Capturing strain localization in reinforced soils

Lade’s single hardening soil model with Cosserat rotation embodied in the finite element method is employed to investigate the behavior of geosynthetic reinforced soils with special attention to the development of shear banding. The ability of the finite element model to detect shear banding in a reinforced soil is examined against three high quality small-scale laboratory plane strain tests on Toyoura sand with and without reinforcement. These three tests were chosen because of the clear failure surfaces that developed in the soil during loading. The FEM analyses were able to reasonably simulate the plane strain laboratory tests including both unreinforced and reinforced cases. The FEM analyses gave reasonably good agreement with the experimental results in terms of global stress–strain relationships and shear band occurrences. Furthermore, and based on FE analyses of a hypothetical geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) retaining wall, it is shown that the geosynthetic reinforcements are very effective in hindering the formation of shear bands in GRS retaining walls when small spacing between the reinforcement layers was used. When used properly, the geosynthetic reinforcements made the soil behave as a truly reinforced mass of considerable stiffness and strength.     

单、双向塑料土工格栅与不同填料界面作用特性对比试验研究

以上海某植物园加筋土工程为背景,通过一系列室内拉拔和直剪试验,研究了单、双向塑料土工格栅与不同填料（黏性土、砂土）的界面作用特性,对比分析了单、双向格栅的加筋效果和界面剪应力的不同发挥机制,探讨了填料密实度、垂直应力、拉拔速率对界面参数的影响,并就拉拔试验和直剪试验结果进行了对比分析。结果表明,对于单向格栅加筋工况,拉拔曲线和直剪曲线通常表现为应变软化型。然而对于双向格栅加筋工况,其曲线一般表现为应变硬化型;对于双向格栅加筋工况,填料对格栅的嵌锁咬合力增强,宏观上表现为较高的界面黏聚力,加筋效果优于单向格栅;填料密实度、垂直应力、拉拔速率对筋土界面特性具有影响,但其影响程度和机制与填料性质有关。     

土工合成材料与土工合成材料加筋砂土的相关特性

目前土工合成材料加筋的理论研究明显落后于工程实践。为了指导土工合成材料的优选和研究加筋机理,以5种国产土工合成材料为加筋材料,它们分别是针刺无纺土工织物、涤纶纤维经编土工格栅、玻璃纤维经编土工格栅、双向塑料拉伸土工格栅和土工网,系统进行三轴压缩试验以比较各种土工合成材料对砂土的加筋效果。试验结果表明：（1）各种土工合成材料加筋砂土的抗剪强度和应力应变特性不同;（2）无纺土工织物适合用于允许大变形的加筋土工程,涤纶纤维经编土工格栅和塑料拉伸土工格栅均适合用于对变形有较严格要求的加筋土工程,玻璃纤维经编土工格栅适合用于对变形有严格限制的加筋工程,设计时需要较大的安全系数,土工网适用低等级的加筋土工程;（3）砂土对各种土工合成材料侧向收缩的约束作用差异显著。     

土工格栅与砂土相互作用机制的拉拔试验研究

筋土之间的相互作用机制复杂,是土工合成材料加筋加固应用中的核心问题。通过室内拉拔试验,研究了土工格栅与砂土相互作用机制和格栅几何特征对拉拔阻力的影响。初步揭示了格栅横肋和纵肋在拉拔模式下的作用机制和格栅网格刚度对拉拔阻力的影响。结果表明,在拉拔位移较小时,纵肋摩阻力和横肋被动阻力几乎同步增长;在拉拔位移较大时,纵肋摩阻力逐步达到峰值,拉拔力的增量大部分来源于被动阻力的进一步增长。土工格栅拉伸模量和网格刚度是影响筋土界面力学特性的重要因素。     

Computational simulation of time-dependent behavior of soil–structure interaction by using a novel creep model: Application to a geosynthetic-reinforced soil physical model

In this paper, a model geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining walls (GRS-RW) is tested by vertically loading it through a rough footing on the top near the retaining wall and the results are simulated by a sophisticated nonlinear Finite Element Method (FEM) having a novel rate dependent constitutive model for both the backfill material and the geosynthetic reinforcement. Usually, polymer geosynthetic reinforcement is known to exhibit more-or-less rate-dependent stress–strain or load–strain behavior due to their viscous properties. The geomaterials (i.e., clay, sand, gravel and soft rock) also exhibit viscous properties. The viscous behavior of geometrials are quite different from that of the polymer based geosynthetic-reinforcements. It has been revealed recently that viscous behavior of sand is a kind of temporary effect, which vanishes with time. So the rate-dependent deformation of backfill reinforced with polymer geosynthetic reinforcement becomes highly complicated due to interactions between the elasto-viscoplastic properties of backfill and reinforcement. In the present study, a scaled model geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining wall is tested with a vertically loaded rough rigid footing. The results of the model test are simulated by using an appropriate elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model of both sand and geogrid embedded in a nonlinear plane strain FEM.     

土工合成材料界面作用特性的拉拔试验研究

在土工合成材料加筋土工程中,土工合成材料与填料的界面作用特性是最关键的技术指标,因此利用拉拔试验研究土工合成材料与填料的界面作用特性是非常必要的。以5种不同种类的国产土工合成材料为加筋材料,以砂和石灰粉煤灰为填料,比较了各种土工合成材料与填料的界面作用特性,试验表明:（1）石灰粉煤灰自重较轻,摩擦角高,并且比砂的拉拔系数相对偏高一倍左右,是理想的土工合成材料加筋土工程的填料;（2）土工合成材料的拉拔系数从高到低排序为涤纶纤维经编土工格栅最高,塑料拉伸土工格栅次之,土工网较低,土工织物最低;（3）不同填料、不同土工合成材料的拉拔系数相差较大,具体加筋土工程采用的拉拔系数需要通过拉拔试验确定。这些结论可指导土工合成材料的优选和研究加筋机理。     

土工格栅与土界面作用特性试验研究

土工格栅与土的界面摩擦特性指标是加筋土工程设计的关键。通过分析土工格栅与土的界面摩擦作用和进行了直剪摩擦试验和拉拔摩擦试验,测试了两种试验条件的界面摩擦特性。在两种试验条件下,土工格栅加筋土复合体的抗剪强度均有界面摩擦角φsq和界面凝聚力csq,且土工格栅与土相对位移量的不同,其复合体的强度机理有区别。在拉拔摩擦试验中,剪应力峰值强度对应的剪切变形值高于直剪摩擦试验中剪应力峰值强度的剪切变形值5～10倍以上。两种试验均有其适用性,而土与土工格栅的相对位移较小时直剪摩擦试验较能反映实际;土与土工格栅相对位移较大时土与格栅双面均发生相对位移,拉拔摩擦试验更为合适。随法向应力的增大,直剪摩擦和拉拔摩擦试验的剪应力峰值以及剪应力峰值对应的位移均提高。直剪摩擦的剪切速度小,剪应力峰值强度高,且达到峰值强度的剪切位移大;增加剪切速度,剪应力峰值强度降低,且对应的位移也减少,其原因是界面上的孔隙水压力消散和筋材的应力松弛。应根据具体工程的需要选择直剪摩擦试验和拉拔摩擦试验确定设计参数。     

Geosynthetic-reinforced and jet grout column-supported embankments on soft soils: Numerical analysis and parametric study

Using a computer code based on the finite element method, a study is conducted to analyse the time-dependent behaviour of a geosynthetic-reinforced and jet grout column-supported embankment on soft soils, as well as the influence of three factors: the embankment height, the elastic modulus of column and the column spacing. The cylindrical unit cell formulation is used. The numerical model incorporates the Biot consolidation theory with soil constitutive relations simulated by the p–q–θ critical state model. Special emphasis is given to the analysis of several parameters: settlement, excess pore pressure, effective stress, stress level, tension in the geosynthetic, soil arching effect and overall efficiency coefficient.     

填埋场衬垫系统界面本构模型研究

典型垃圾填埋场衬垫系统由土/土工膜、土工膜/土工织物等多个界面组成,这些界面抗剪强度低,成为潜在的滑裂面,容易使填埋场发生沿界面的失稳破坏。本文根据大量土/土工膜界面直剪试验的研究,针对该界面的变形机理和应变软化特性,在前人研究的基础上确定了接触面的厚度,定义了接触面的切向应变和法向应变,将界面的变形分为3个阶段:弹性阶段,塑性阶段和残余阶段。同时提出了适合于土与土工膜界面的弹塑性本构模型。该本构模型参数较少,物理意义明确,运用简单方便。最后,结合Filz接触面直剪试验和钱学德单剪试验的结果,将通过该模型得到的拟合结果与之进行了对比验证分析。研究结果表明:本文提出的土与土工膜界面弹塑性本构模型是合理可行的,且建模方便,适用于工程实践。     

Influences of overburden pressure and soil dilation on soil nail pull-out resistance

Soil nailing is the most popular technique for stabilizing newly formed and existing sub-standard slopes in Hong Kong because of its economic and technical advantages. The nail–soil interface shear resistance is an important parameter in design of soil nailed structures. A three-dimensional finite element model was established and used for simulating soil nail pull-out tests. The finite element model was verified by comparing simulated results with measured data. The agreement between the experimental and simulated results in terms of both average pull-out shear stress and stress variation was very good. Using this finite element model, a parametric study was carried out to study the influences of the overburden pressure and soil dilation angle on the soil nail pull-out resistance. The simulated peak pull-out resistance was not directly related to the overburden pressure, which was coincident with the observations in laboratory pull-out tests. The simulated pull-out resistance increased significantly with the increase in dilation angle of the shearing zone. This analysis indicated that the constrained dilatancy of the nail–soil interface and the soil surrounding the nail contributed a lot to the development of peak pull-out resistance.     

Analysis of geosynthetic reinforced soil structures with orthogonal anisotropy

Reinforced soil with geosynthetics as a composite material represents significant orthogonally anisotropic properties. However, current analytical methods usually treat the soil and reinforcement separately, which is not true of practical situations. Therefore, it is difficult to use these methods to study the real effects of the reinforcement. This paper presents an analytical model based on the theory of elasticity for orthogonally anisotropic materials that can be used in analyzing reinforced soil structures with geosynthetics. The stresses and deformations at any point within the reinforced soil structure can be determined by the proposed model. The capabilities of the model have been illustrated by application to an example problem involving a physical model test of a geosynthetic reinforced soil structure. The results of the model prediction are compared with those obtained from the model tests as well as finite element analysis. It is shown that the results of the analytical solution are in good agreement with those of the physical model tests and the finite element analysis.     

土工格栅筋土拉拔界面的弹性-指数软化模型与性状

土工格栅被广泛应用于路堤、边坡、挡土墙等加筋土工程,而筋土界面分析是研究加筋作用机理的关键。根据土工格栅拉拔荷载下的受力状态,分析了拉拔试验实际剪应力与位移关系,发现界面软化阶段剪应力与位移近似呈指数分布,已有计算模型大多高估了界面剪应力,提出了能够考虑界面渐进破坏及非线性特性的弹性-指数软化模型。通过筋土界面基本控制方程,得到了土工格栅拉拔荷载下不同阶段受力状态的计算模型。对界面剪应力发展历程及分布规律展开了较为细致的研究,同时进行了参数分析,包括剪切刚度、抗拉刚度、加筋长度、软化指数衰减特征系数等。结果表明,土工格栅拉拔过程中,当筋土界面处于弹性阶段时,界面剪应力不均匀性及界面最大剪应力随剪切刚度增大而增加,弹性模量则相反;软化阶段内,加筋长度越长,界面软化现象越明显,加筋长度较短时,可近似认为界面剪应力呈均匀分布;软化指数衰减特征系数越大,界面剪应力波动越大,其峰值往拉拔端移动;进入残余阶段后,界面剪应力由拉拔端向自由端增大且逐渐趋于残余应力。研究成果可为加筋土工程土工格栅选取提供理论指导。     

筋土界面特性宏细观分析试验仪器研制与应用

为了更全面地分析筋土界面相互作用特性,改制了一台可视加筋土界面特性宏细观分析的试验仪器,可开展不同土工合成材料与填料的直剪和拉拔试验;该仪器改进了试验箱的尺寸,可方便两种试验的对比分析,增加了图像摄录系统,可进行试验过程的细观分析。使用新研制仪器分别进行了土工合成材料（土工格栅和土工布）加筋尾矿砂的直剪和拉拔试验,试验结果表明:两种试验条件下,土工格栅与尾矿的界面参数（似黏聚力和似摩擦角）及似摩擦系数均比土工布与尾矿的界面参数和似摩擦系数大;直剪试验下筋材网孔的有无对筋-尾矿界面参数均有较大影响,拉拔试验下筋材网孔有无对筋-尾矿界面参数似黏聚力的影响较为显著,对似摩擦角的影响较小。随着宏观变量法向应力的增加,细观参数孔隙率减小,平均接触数增加,反映在宏观上的现象就是填料颗粒被压密,筋材需要克服的阻力增大。该试验仪器能够较好地分析筋土界面宏细观特性,获得关键技术指标以用于加筋结构的设计。      

Discrete element simulation of geogrid-stabilised soil

A particle-based numerical simulation procedure is presented for the generation and calibration of geogrid-stabilised soil on the basis of experimental data. The paper describes how to simulate a biaxial geogrid depending on a specific particle and parallel bond model. Numerical and experimental pull-out tests have been performed to reproduce the pull-out force–strain behaviour of a biaxial geogrid specimen embedded in granular material under special consideration of the grain-size distribution, initial relative density, normal stress state as well as sample installation. Model analysis of soil mobilisation and geogrid deformation is presented to understand the significance of the interlocking effect as key mechanism for soil stabilisation. The procedure can be used for further investigations of the influence and effects of soil stabilisation depending on the significant properties of the interacting components (soils and geogrids).     

Axisymmetric finite element analysis of pile loading tests

In this paper a typical soil–structure interaction problem is considered, the case of a vertical pile installed in sand and submitted to an axial compression loading. Results from two full scale pile tests are analysed and the tests are reproduced by numerical simulations via finite elements method (FEM). The choice of the mechanical parameters for the soil and the sand–pile interface and the modelling approach are first described. A new numerical strategy is outlined to account for pile installation effects due to jacking and driving via FEM. The proposed approach is based on the application of existing empirical correlations available for the quantification of residual radial and shear stresses along the pile shaft as well as residual pressures around the pile base after the installation. This approach is proposed as an alternative to more complex methods based on the numerical modelling of the pile penetration problem. The role of the constitutive modelling of the interface is also discussed. Finally, comparative analyses of pile loading tests using FEM are provided and the comparisons between numerical and experimental results are presented and discussed.     

粗粒料接触面模型及其在土石坝工程中的应用

在土石坝工程中越来越重视岸坡与坝料之间的接触特性,将土体本构模型中使用较多的双曲线型硬化规律运用至接触面模型,提出了一个简洁的接触面本构模型,推导了接触面模型刚度矩阵表达式。通过对4组试验的预测结果与试验结果的对比,表明该模型可以较好地预测粗粒料的界面剪切试验。将提出的接触面模型嵌入有限元程序,应用于如美心墙坝河谷与坝料的接触分析。三维有限元计算结果表明：坝体两侧岸坡的剪切位移变化规律都是中间部分剪切滑移量较大,岸坡边缘部分相对较小,陡坡一侧最大滑移量大于较缓一侧。这些均符合粗粒料滑移的基本规律,可为岸坡?坝料接触特性研究以及土石坝工程计算提供参考。     

Performance of Foundations in Sabkha Soil: Numerical Investigation

Sabkha or salt flat soil is one of the most unpredictable and potentially dangerous soils in the Middle East. This soil covers a large and strategically important area of the Arabian Gulf coast, as it contains the world biggest oil reserve and a number of petrochemical plants are either have been built or are scheduled to be built in this area. The performance of shallow and deep foundations in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia’s sabkha soil is investigated numerically using the finite element method. The parameters used to simulate this soil in the numerical models were based on a large number of laboratory tests to determine the shear strength and stiffness parameters of the sabkha soil. In addition, the characteristics of the interface between the foundation and soil used in the numerical model were established from shear box tests that were conducted to evaluate the concrete-sabkha soil interface properties. The developed numerical model was calibrated/verified using the results of full-scale pile load testing program from an ongoing project to further enhance the accuracy of the results. A parametric study was then conducted using the verified model to establish the performance characteristics of foundations constructed in sabkha soil and provide guidelines for their design.     

Axi-symmetric Analysis of Geosynthetic-reinforced Granular Fill-soft Soil System with Group of Stone Columns

The paper presents a mechanical model to predict the behavior of geosynthetic-reinforced granular fill resting over soft soil improved with group of stone columns subjected to circular or axi-symmetric loading. The saturated soft soil has been idealized by spring-dashpot system. Pasternak shear layer and rough elastic membrane represent the granular fill and geosynthetic reinforcement layer, respectively. The stone columns are idealized by stiffer springs. The nonlinear behavior of granular fill and soft soil is considered. Consolidation of the soft soil due to inclusion of stone columns has also been included in the model. The results obtained by using the present model when compared with the reported results obtained from laboratory model tests shows very good agreement. The effectiveness of geosynthetic reinforcement to reduce the maximum and differential settlement and transfer the stress from soft soil to stone columns is highlighted. It is observed that the reduction of settlement and stress transfer process are greatly influenced by stiffness and spacing of the stone columns. It has been further observed that for both geosynthetic-reinforced and unreinforced cases, the maximum settlement does not change if the ratio between spacing and diameter of stone columns is greater than 4.