Some Attempts for Estimating Rock Strength and Rock Mass Classification from Cutting Force and Investigation of Optimum Operation of Tunnel Boring Machines

Summary. Tunnel face and wall collapse are common during excavations performed by tunnel boring machines (TBMs) due to the difficulty of correctly identifying the properties of the excavated rock. This identification, however, can be simplified by using the cutting force to estimate rock strength, a method that has already proved quite successful in Japanese tunnel excavations. This paper summarizes knowledge relating to the cutting force obtained through tunnel excavation experience, and the relationship between rock strength and TBM operation is discussed. Although TBM operators rely on intuition to set the cutter head speed appropriately, this decision process represents a logical method of operation that takes advantage of the variable speed capability of the cutter head. Selection of appropriate support methods for the excavated face is also a critical issue in tunnel excavation. This selection process is based on the condition of the rock, which is difficult to determine quickly and accurately during tunnel excavation. The present paper uses the excavation of two tunnels to demonstrate that it is possible to assign rock mass classifications accurately based on rock strength when boring a uniform rock type. It is also shown that the rock mass can be classified from the rock strength normalized by the uniaxial compressive strength when boring through mixed rock types.     

压入硬度的修正方法──根据硬度和塑性系数估算破岩比功

通过分析压入硬度和破岩比功的关系,得出比功更能综合反映岩石的破碎难易程度的结论。为简化比功的测定方法,提出根据压入硬度、塑性系数及破碎坑体积扩大率来估算比功的方法,推导出比功的计算公式,并对比功的计算值和实测值进行了对比,具有一定应用价值。     

Effects of Rock Properties on Specific Cutting Energy in Linear Cutting of Sandstones by Picks

Summary. Specific cutting energy (SE) has been widely used to assess the rock cuttability for mechanical excavation purposes. Some prediction models were developed for SE through correlating rock properties with SE values. However, some of the textural and compositional rock parameters i.e. texture coefficient and feldspar, mafic, and felsic mineral contents were not considered. The present study is to investigate the effects of previously ignored rock parameters along with engineering rock properties on SE. Mineralogical and petrographic analyses, rock mechanics, and linear rock cutting tests were performed on sandstone samples taken from sites around Ankara, Turkey. Relationships between SE and rock properties were evaluated using bivariate correlation and linear regression analyses. The tests and subsequent analyses revealed that the texture coefficient and feldspar content of sandstones affected rock cuttability, evidenced by significant correlations between these parameters and SE at a 90% confidence level. Felsic and mafic mineral contents of sandstones did not exhibit any statistically significant correlation against SE. Cementation coefficient, effective porosity, and pore volume had good correlations against SE. Poisson’s ratio, Brazilian tensile strength, Shore scleroscope hardness, Schmidt hammer hardness, dry density, and point load strength index showed very strong linear correlations against SE at confidence levels of 95% and above, all of which were also found suitable to be used in predicting SE individually, depending on the results of regression analysis, ANOVA, Student’s t-tests, and R² values. Poisson’s ratio exhibited the highest correlation with SE and seemed to be the most reliable SE prediction tool in sandstones.     

香港岩石的硬度与点荷载指标和强度的关系

无损硬度测试——施密特锤及肖氏硬度实验和点荷载试验是三种经常用来间接测定岩石强度指标的方法。目前很多学者已提出了不同的经验关系,这些关系主要是把硬度指标、点荷载指标和单轴抗压强度、单轴抗拉强度与间接拉伸强度联系起来。但是在应用这些关系时,必须首先用当地的岩石特性数据加以验证,查看地质变化的影响,才可确保使用无误。本文的主要目的是根据大量香港岩石（包括花岗岩、石灰岩、大理岩和凝灰岩）的实验数据,提出一套适用于香港地区岩石的经验关系,另外也对其他经验关系作了考证。     

Relations of Rock Structure and Composition to Petrophysical and Geomechanical Rock Properties: Examples from Permocarboniferous Red-Beds

Summary. This study relates textural properties to physical and mechanical properties of coarse grained sedimentary rocks of Permocarboniferous age. As an equivalent to rock texture the principle of geomechanical order is applied. The geomechanical order describes a rock as a function of its structural and compositional order which are derived from petrological analyses. Our results indicate that rock properties like density and porosity are stronger dependent on the structural order, while strength properties additionally depend on the compositional order. The ultrasonic wave velocity responds to both structural and compositional properties. These evidences imply that the geomechanical order is not an independent parameter but a variable function of structural or compositional features, which needs specification for correlation purposes to distinct physical and mechanical rock properties.     

Estimation of Block Sizes for Rock Masses with Non-persistent Joints

Summary  Discontinuities or joints in the rock mass have various shapes and sizes. Along with the joint orientation and spacing, the joint persistence, or the relative size of the joint, is one of the most important factors in determining the block sizes of jointed rock masses. Although the importance of joint persistence on the overall rock mass strength has long been identified, the impact of persistence on rock strength is in most current rock mass classification systems underrepresented. If joints are assumed to be persistent, as is the case in most designs, the sizes of the rock blocks tend to be underestimated. This can lead to more removable blocks than actually exist in-situ. In addition, a poor understanding of the rock bridge strength may lead to lower rock mass strengths, and consequently, to excessive expenditure on rock support. In this study, we suggest and verify a method for the determination of the block sizes considering joint persistence. The idea emerges from a quantitative approach to apply the GSI system for rock mass classification, in which the accurate block size is required. There is a need to statistically analyze how the distribution of rock bridges according to the combination of joint orientation, spacing, and persistence will affect the actual size of each individual block. For this purpose, we generate various combinations of joints with different geometric conditions by the orthogonal arrays using the distinct element analysis tools of UDEC and 3DEC. Equivalent block sizes (areas in 2D and volumes in 3D) and their distributions are obtained from the numerical simulation. Correlation analysis is then performed to relate the block sizes predicted by the empirical equation to those obtained from the numerical model simulation. The results support the concept of equivalent block size proposed by Cai et al. (2004, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 41(1), 3–19).     

Indirect Estimation of Rock Uniaxial Compressive Strength from Simple Index Tests: Review and Improved Least Squares Regression Tree Predictive Model

Geotechnical and Geological Engineering - Uniaxial compressive strength is an important mechanical parameter for rock mass engineering. Hence, how to determine the UCS simply and accurately have...     

不同围压下岩石抗压强度与变形参数尺寸效应的数值模拟

岩石抗压强度和变形参数是岩石工程设计的重要指标。由于岩石是典型的非均质材料,其强度和变形特性随样品尺 寸的变化而不同。本文采用PFC2D程序模拟了不同围压下不同尺寸岩样的压缩试验。结果表明（1） 岩样具有明显的尺寸效 应。同一围压下,尺寸越大,岩石强度、峰值应变和压缩模量越小,尺寸的变化对岩样的破坏模式影响较小;（2） 岩样具 有明显的围压效应。同一尺寸的岩样,随着围压的增大,岩石强度、峰值应变和压缩模量均增加,其中强度和峰值应变随 围压的增加呈线性增加。同时,随着围压的增大,岩石破裂模式由轴向劈裂破坏向剪切破坏变化;（3） 围压的存在会影响 岩样的尺寸效应。不同尺寸岩样的强度和峰值应变在相同围压区间内的增量基本相同,同时随着围压的增大,其强度和峰 值应变增加,进而使岩石强度和峰值应变的尺寸效应弱化;而不同尺寸岩样的压缩模量在相同围压区间内的增长率大致相 同,因而造成围压对压缩模量尺寸效应的影响较小     

A spatial estimation model for continuous rock mass characterization from the specific energy of a TBM

Summary  Basic principles of the theory of rock cutting with rolling disc cutters are used to appropriately reduce tunnel boring machine (TBM) logged data and compute the specific energy (SE) of rock cutting as a function of geometry of the cutterhead and operational parameters. A computational code written in Fortran 77 is used to perform Kriging predictions in a regular or irregular grid in 1D, 2D or 3D space based on sampled data referring to rock mass classification indices or TBM related parameters. This code is used here for three purposes, namely: (1) to filter raw data in order to establish a good correlation between SE and rock mass rating (RMR) (or tunnelling quality index Q) along the chainage of the tunnel, (2) to make prediction of RMR, Q or SE along the chainage of the tunnel from boreholes at the exploration phase and design stage of the tunnel, and (3) to make predictions of SE and RMR or Q ahead of the tunnel’s face during excavation of the tunnel based on SE estimations during excavation. The above tools are the basic constituents of an algorithm to continuously update the geotechnical model of the rock mass based on logged TBM data. Several cases were considered to illustrate the proposed methodology, namely: (a) data from a system of twin tunnels in Hong Kong, (b) data from three tunnels excavated in Northern Italy, and (c) data from the section Singuerlin-Esglesias of the Metro L9 tunnel in Barcelona. Correspondence: G. Exadaktylos, Department of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece     

Experimental Study of Temperature Effects on Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Salt Rock

Summary. Because of its advantageous physical and mechanical characteristics, salt rock is considered an excellent host rock for nuclear waste disposal. Nuclear wastes in a salt rock repository will continue to emit radiation and thermal energy for decades after placement, resulting in a significant rise of the surrounding salt rock temperature. Consequently, study of the physical and mechanical characteristics of salt rock under different temperature conditions is essential to ensure the integrity of the salt rock repository and the safe isolation of nuclear wastes from the biosphere. Through a series of physical and mechanical tests on thenardite salt rock at different temperatures (ranging from 20 °C to 240 °C), it is found that the mechanical parameters have different reactions to a changing temperature. Tests show that the ultrasonic velocity of samples decreases with temperature increase and both the uniaxial compressive strength and axial strain increase with temperature, whereas the tangent modulus E_t goes in an opposite direction. Meanwhile, the plastic strain increases gradually and strain-softening behavior of the samples becomes increasingly evident. In the pre-set angle shear tests, both the cohesion and internal friction angle increase with temperature. Results obtained in direct shear illustrate that both the peak shear strength and the ultimate shear strength increase with temperature. We conclude that the behavior of thenardite salt rock at high temperatures is still advantageous to the integrity of salt rock repository, assuring the safe isolation of nuclear wastes from the biosphere.     

点荷载试验在岩基强度和承载力评价中的应用

岩石点荷载试验可以求得岩石点荷载强度指数,由点荷载强度可以 计算出岩石的单轴抗压强度,进而可计算出岩基承载力。 利用点荷载试验方法对南京地区的多个人工挖孔桩工地的孔底岩基强 度和承载力进行了评价,具体指导了挖孔桩的挖进工作,取得了良好效果。     

Geostatistical Evaluation of the Mechanical Properties of Rock Mass for TBM Tunnelling by Seismic Reflection Method

Summary. The evaluation of the rock mass mechanical properties by the seismic reflection method and TBM driving is proposed for TBM tunnelling. The relationship between the reflection number derived from the three-dimensional seismic reflection method and the rock strength index (RSI) derived from TBM driving data is examined, and the methodology of conversion from the reflection number to the RSI is proposed. Furthermore a geostatistical prediction methodology to provide a three-dimensional geotechnical profile ahead of the tunnel face is proposed. The performance of this prediction method is verified by actual field data.     

截齿破岩机制及截线间距优化试验研究

根据截齿侵入岩石的断裂特征和相关试验数据,分析了破岩机制及不同截线间距对破岩效果的影响。在单刀旋转截割试验平台上,以不同切削深度和截线间距进行组合试验,并结合比能耗、粗度指数及截割载荷3个评价指标,对截线间距进行优化,研究截割该类型砂岩时截线间距与切削深度的最佳比值。试验结果表明,岩石在单齿旋转截割作用下的破碎过程大致可以分为初始压碎区细粒岩屑生成、密实核形成并储能、各向裂纹的扩展与连通、断裂体崩落、二次压碎区细粒岩屑生成5个阶段,且岩屑的断裂是以拉伸为主并伴随着挤压和剪切的共同作用;在最佳截割条件下,粗度指数较高,岩屑成块率增加,且比能耗低。通过分析岩石破碎过程及对截线间距的优化,可为掘进机破岩机制研究及截齿布置提供参考。     

A Multidisciplinary Methodology for Hazard and Risk Assessment of Rock Avalanches

Summary A quantitative procedure for hazard and risk assessment of large landslides that can develop as rock avalanches is discussed in this paper. Reference is made to the IMIRILAND project, where a multidisciplinary methodology has been developed paying particular attention to the landslide modeling process that leads to the quantification of the hazard, i.e. the prediction of the occurrence probability, the involved area and the run-out velocity. The risk assessment methodology is exemplified in the paper with reference to two cases: the Ceppo Morelli and Rosone landslides, both of which are located in the Italian Western Alps. The results of these applications show that, despite the development of sophisticated 3D numerical methods, many uncertainties still remain in the process of modeling large and complex landslides, related in particular to the definition of the probability of failure and the rheological parameters to be used for the prediction of rock mass behavior. However geo-mechanical models are found to be very valuable tools to verify, from a mechanical point of view, the assumptions introduced through the geo-structural and geo-morphological analyses concerning the volume and the kinematics of the unstable mass, and their role is fundamental for the determination of the involved area when mechanical parameters can be assumed with sufficient reliability. Author’s address: Marta Castelli, Politecnico di Torino – Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy     

Sandbox Experimental Study on the Influence of Rock Strength and Gravity on Formation of Thrusts

INTRODUCTIONRock deformation is normally explained by tec-tonic stress as rock deformation results fromthe tec-tonic stress field. The classic tools that explainedfracture mechanisms were the Coulomb shear fracturerule and the Anderson mode derived fromit (Zhu,1999) . More and more studies have shown that it isdifficult to explain rock deformation in a large strainrange using only the Coulomb shear fracture rule( Waltham,2002 ; Gutscher et al .,2001 ; Tikoff andWojtal ,1999) . As a ver…     

Depth Variability of Compressive Strength Test Results of Toki Granite from Shobasama and Mizunami Construction Sites,Japan

This paper studies the depth variability of uniaxial compressive laboratory test results on intact Toki granite (i.e., sound rock without macroscopic fractures) from the Shobasama and Mizunami Construction Sites, Japan. Some of the depth variability observed in the laboratory results can be indirectly attributed to the high fracture frequency of the “upper highly fractured rock domain” from which some of the samples were taken. For samples taken from the “lower sparsely fractured rock domain,” however, the uniaxial compressive strength of the granite seems to be very strongly correlated to the level of in situ rock stress (i.e., maximum shear stress) determined by measurement results obtained from hydrofracturing tests. The correlation between the laboratory results and the level of in situ stress is explained by the damage due to the complex stress path that the cores undergo during drilling, besides the stress concentrations at the drill-bit/rock contact, which can also affect the microcracking of the samples. An attempt to adjust laboratory test results to estimate the in situ intact rock strength of Toki granite based on its correlation with in situ stresses was carried out.