The Spaces of Conservation and Development around Lake Nakuru National Park,Kenya

Geographically or sociologically defined resource management units, such as buffer zones or community resource management territories, seek to harmonize local land–use practices with protected–area management objectives. The geographically restricted nature of these models often results in simplistic representations of society–nature relations over time and space. Conservation areas are misrepresented as ecologically and socially homogeneous, as well as politically neutral. This study examines the limits of a spatially defined conservation and development project designed around the physical geographical unit of the watershed at Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. It argues that politically motivated violence that has plagued the area since the early 1990s has severely undermined the suitability of such narrowly defined conservation territories. Specifically, the case study points to the permeability of the Lake Nakuru watershed to national and regional political forces that ultimately constrain participation in conservation activities. The spaces of conservation and development must be enlarged to include these extralocal arenas and processes if environmental problems are to be effectively addressed.     

The Dramas of the Marine Extractive Reserve Managers in Brazil: Navigating through Multiple Institutions

Abstract

In this paper, we describe and analyze the co-management institutional framework at 21 Brazilian Marine Extractive Reserves (MERs) and present the dramas of its implementation from the local manager’s perspective. We categorized the governance instruments of MERs into (i) instruments for land/sea tenure and beneficiaries’ recognition, (ii) territorial use planning, (iii) institutional arenas for discussion and deliberation, as well as (iv) public policies. Although the legal arrangements of these protected areas address fundamental dimensions of governance, we present the challenges of its implementation based on the voice of local managers. The managers are the bridge between the central government and communities, dealing with the implementation of the institutional framework in a reality of multi-level and multi-scale drama: from local to national dilemmas, from organizational to structural ones. We explore these dramas and highlight the institutional dilemmas based on the paradoxes between legalism and social emancipation.     

资源依赖、权力与利益博弈：村寨型景区开发企业与社区关系研究——以西双版纳勐景来景区为例

以西双版纳勐景来景区为案例地,通过访谈、观察等方法,在构建村寨型景区开发企业与社区之间资源相互依赖关系分析框架的基础上,探讨村寨型景区开发企业与社区关系动态演变背后的逻辑。研究发现,村寨型景区开发企业与社区关系的动态演变是二者资源相互依赖程度变化作用的结果。在景区发展初期,开发企业对社区的依赖程度小于社区对开发企业的依赖程度,即在两者的利益博弈中,开发企业的权力比社区大,社区得到的利益从零开始不断增大,二者矛盾较少。在景区发展成熟期,开发企业对社区的依赖程度大于社区对开发企业的依赖程度,即在两者的利益博弈中,社区的权力比开发企业大,此时在已有的利益分配机制不变的情况下,会因利益分配导致社区与开发企业冲突。此外,还推论出在政府干预和协调下,村寨型景区开发企业在与社区的利益冲突中会让步于社区这一结论,可为企业投资村寨型景区开发提供现实指导。     

中国自然保护地旅游资源利用的冲突和协调路径分析

协调旅游资源保护与利用冲突是当前自然保护地体系建设亟待解决的关键问题之一。论文利用质性研究方法,在系统总结中国自然保护地旅游资源利用的阶段特征与模式基础上,分析了现阶段旅游资源利用的冲突及其矛盾本质,并从多维视角探讨冲突的形成机制,从生态保护、社区发展、理论逻辑等方面分析现阶段自然保护地旅游资源利用的可行性与合理性;最后从建立利益主体权责明确的一体化资源利用机制、加强对旅游资源利用活动资源环境效应的评估、因地制宜探索自然生态资源保护和利用的动态模式、建立更加精准化的自然保护地分区利用方案、以生态理念为指导创新生态旅游产品类型等方面,提出自然保护地旅游资源利用的合理路径。研究结论有助于各界从系统性视角深入理解现阶段自然保护地旅游资源利用的冲突,同时对合理推动自然生态资源的可持续利用具有借鉴意义。     

The dynamics of vulnerability: locating coping strategies in Kenya and Tanzania

We investigate how smallholder farmers at two sites in Kenya and Tanzania cope with climate stress and how constraints and opportunities shape variations in coping strategies between households and over time during a drought. On the basis of this analysis, we draw out implications for adaptation and adaptive policy. We find that households where an individual was able to specialize in one favoured activity, such as employment or charcoal burning, in the context of overall diversification by the household, were often less vulnerable than households where each individual is engaged in many activities at low intensity. Many households had limited access to the favoured coping options due to a lack of skill, labour and/or capital. This lack of access was compounded by social relations that led to exclusion of certain groups, especially women, from carrying out favoured activities with sufficient intensity. These households instead carried out a multitude of less favoured and frequently complementary activities, such as collecting indigenous fruit. While characterized by suitability to seasonal environmental variations and low demands on time and cash investments, these strategies often yielded marginal returns. Both the marginalization of local niche products and the commercialization of forest resources exemplify processes leading to differential vulnerability. We suggest that vulnerability can usefully be viewed in terms of the interaction of such processes, following the concept of locality. We argue that coping is a distinct component of vulnerability and that understanding the dynamism of coping and vulnerability is critical to developing adaptation measures that support people as active agents.     

Rainfall Variability in Murang'a District, Kenya: Meteorological Data and Farmers' Perception

This study examines meteorological data and farmers' perception of rainfall in the Central Highlands of Kenya. Rainfall data from five meteorological stations during the period from 1947 to 1996 were analysed on an annual and a monthly basis. Daily data exist from 1957 and analyses from 1957 to 1996 were done on a daily basis. Discussions were held with 60 farmers about rainfall and its variation. Ten of these farmers were interviewed with a questionnaire about rainfall. Analysing annual precipitation and rain periods gave no clear trends over the study period. Results from analysing the growing seasons for maize, the main annual crop, and periods during which maize plants are sensitive to drought showed decreasing trends in rainfall amounts for the study period. Results from the interviews indicate that most of the farmers think rainfall has decreased over the last 40 years. Farmers'perceptions of rainfall are related to periods when the main food and annual crop require water and not to the periods scientists often analyse, i.e. annual and rain periods. More research and better advice from agricultural extension workers to farmers are necessary to enable this area to sustain itself in sufficient food production if the decreasing trends during the growing seasons and drought-sensitive periods continue.     

Community Development Approaches to Heart Health Promotion: A Geographical Perspective

This paper reports results of a qualitative study of community development approaches to heart health promotion in Ontario. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) represents a substantial proportion of the burden of illness experienced by western industrialized countries. Biomedical research has implicated lifestyle choices and socioeconomic conditions as primary determinants of CVD. There has been a resultant shift from curative to preventive/health promoting strategies to reduce this burden of illness. The Canadian Heart Health Initiative-Ontario Project (CHHIOP), a two-stage (quantitative and qualitative) longitudinal study, was designed to address issues of heart health promotion through the investigation and strengthening of community-based heart health activities in both the formal and informal public health systems. The study reported on in this paper forms one part of the qualitative stage and focuses on how community relationships and community development approaches play out in local contexts to shape the reality of (heart) health promotion practice. Analysis of key informant interviews using Ethnograph illustrates the centrality of community context, the lack of a common understanding of key concepts (e.g., community development), and the emergence of a shift in health agencies' ways of doing business characterized by increased partnering and collaboration in the delivery of (heart) health promotion programs. Local perspectives and the dynamics of intra-community relations were allowed to emerge through the use of qualitative approaches implying a need for place-sensitive (heart) health promotion strategies.     

通勤时间、社区活动对社区社会资本的影响：基于北京26个社区的调查研究

城市扩张和郊区化显著增加居民的通勤时间,减少居民在社区内及周边开展的日常活动,进而可能对居民的社区社会资本产生消极影响。基于2017年北京市26个社区居民的社区融合与活动日志问卷调查数据,通过构建结构方程模型,探讨通勤时间、社区活动对社区社会资本的影响机制。结果发现,控制居民社会经济属性和社区区位后,长时间通勤会减少居民在社区及周边1 000 m范围内开展的活动,并进一步对社区社交网络结构、社会信任和共同价值等社区社会资本的不同维度产生负面影响。此外,社区活动中社交娱乐活动的中介效应显著,而个人和家庭事务活动中介效应不显著。最后,证实了促进职住平衡、减少职住分离的规划政策对于增加居民社区活动及培育社区社会资本的重要意义。     

Community Action and Tiger Conservation: Assessing the Role of Social Capital

Tiger conservation often requires local-level support to avoid facing serious political challenges. In order to address the political challenges, the social capital of communities can be utilized to create community action and to help understand local dynamics. We studied the social capital in two villages bordering Corbett Tiger Reserve, India. Our results indicate that social capital of local communities is a significant determinant of potential for community action to support or oppose tiger conservation outcomes. Our results also indicate that specific components of social capital (solidarity, reciprocity and cooperation, networks, and mutual support) were critical in this potential community action. Further, the data suggest that the decline of social capital was led by the financial disparities created by unplanned growth of tourism outside the reserve boundaries. We suggest that policy and management interventions should consider social capital of local communities and ways in which it may support tiger conservation in India.     

全球化、跨国公司投资与地区发展关系研究进展

近年来,全球化力量成为影响区域经济发展及其空间格局演变的主要因素之一。在未来相当长一个时期内,全球化因素影响的深度与广度都将进一步扩展。随着经济活动全球化的发展,学术界有相当多的研究关注全球化、跨国公司投资及其社会经济影响。本文分别从国家、区域和企业三个不同的层面及全球化与区域发展互动的角度对现有的关于全球化、跨国公司投资与地区发展的相关研究进行总结和评述。     

旅游与社区一体化发展研究

旅游与社区一体化发展的实现过程包括实现旅游与社区一体化发展的内外部环境构建、社区与旅游一体化发展的旅游规划、社区与旅游一体化发展的旅游影响评价等3个过程。文章对这3个过程进行了分析,并对如何实现旅游与社区一体化发展及如何构建旅游与社区一体化发展程度的评价指标体系进行了初步探讨。     

额济纳绿洲柽柳群落蒸散特征的初步分析

利用波文比能量平衡法对额济纳绿洲柽柳群落蒸散进行研究, 发现柽柳蒸散速率日变化成双峰形, 各月出现峰值和低谷值的时间各不相同, 8月最迟; 平均蒸散速率值8月>7月>6月>9月; 各月蒸散总量大小依次为126.9mm(8月)>93.85mm(7月)>77.3mm(6月)>65.2mm(9月)。整个生长季蒸散总量为363.35mm。蒸散速率的变化受植物自生生理特性及气候因子和下垫面条件影响, 其中净辐射起主导作用; 蒸散速率与地下水位变化成反相关关系, 地下水位的大幅度下降可能致使柽柳死亡。     

河南省乡村住区可持续发展研究

文章通过对河南省乡村住区建设现状的分析,总结了其成功的经验及其存在的问题,进一步提出了搞好乡村住区建设规划、注重不同类型的乡村住区土地整理、重视乡村住区生态环境和加大乡村文化建设力度等河南省乡村住区可持续发展对策与措施。     

城市化过程中半城市化地区社区人居环境特征研究——以厦门市集美区为例

城市化过程中半城市化地区存在着城市化程度由低到高的农村社区、城乡过渡型社区以及居住小区等城市型社区,社区人居环境多样化、多变化。在城市化影响下,这些社区人居环境呈现一定的特征。以厦门市集美区为例,通过选取典型社区,分析其景观格局特征,构建人居环境评价指标体系,对城市化过程中半城市化地区不同类型社区的人居环境特征进行了研究。结果表明:①从农村到城乡过渡型社区,建筑面积比例显著增加,道路面积比例变化不大,而林地和草地面积比例逐渐减少,景观格局逐渐变为景观类型较单一、以现代建筑为优势景观的状态,景观趋于破碎化,形状略趋复杂,城市居住小区各类景观面积比例则相对合理,但景观高度破碎化、形状较规则。②城市化过程中各类型社区人居环境质量均逐渐变好,城乡过渡型社区和农村尤为明显,城市居住小区质量明显高于过渡型社区与农村,且除城中村之外,从农村到城市居住小区社区城市化程度与人居环境质量呈正相关关系。③城市化总体上促进了社区人居环境质量的提高,但对社区人居环境各方面的作用具有不同的规律,对于环境质量、人文环境等方面具有一定的负面影响。     

Characterization of drought in the Kerio Valley Basin,Kenya using the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index: 1960−2016

The Kerio Valley basin in Kenya has undergone several periods of drought, yet drought patterns in the region are not well understood due to limited climatic data. Drought events in the region have resulted in crop failure and livestock deaths, exacerbating food shortages. In this study, the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), a multi‐scalar drought index was used to examine the onset, duration, severity, intensity, and frequency of agricultural and hydrological drought in the region. The gridded 0.5° × 0.5° climatic datasets from Climatic Research Unit for the period 1960?2016 was used for analysis. Temporal evolutions of SPEI at 6‐ and 12‐month lags were subsequently used to evaluate agricultural and hydrological drought, respectively. Additionally, the Mann‐Kendall trend test was used to test for trends in the time series. Results from the analysis show that: 1) droughts are becoming more frequent in the region, 2) drought intensities in the arid and semi‐arid lands have weakened, 3) regions west of the Kerio River have recently recorded a wetting trend, and 4) the southern and central regions of the basin are drought‐prone. Understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of drought in the basin can assist in drought preparation and mitigation planning.     

The influence of climate change on maize production in the semi-humid–semi-arid areas of Kenya

The effect of climate change on maize production in the semi-humid and semi-arid, agro-climatic zones III-IV of Kenya was evaluated using two General Circulation Models (GCMs): the Canadian Climate Center Model (CCCM) and the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), as well as the CERES-Maize model. Long-term climate data was obtained from three meteorological stations situated in eastern, central and western regions of Kenya, while maize data was obtained from six sites within the regions. The climate scenarios were projected to the year 2030. Temperature increases of 2·29 and 2·89°C are predicted by the CCCM and GFDL, respectively. Rainfall levels are predicted to remain unchanged, but there are thought to be shifts in distribution. It is predicted that the short-rains season (October–January) will experience some increased rainfall, while the long-rains season (April–July) will show a decrease. Maize yields are predicted to decrease in zone III areas, while an increase is predicted in zone IV areas. However, the predicted changes in yields are low since they all fall below 500 kg ha⁻¹, except the Homa Bay site. Thus, to counter the adverse effects of climate change on maize production, it may be necessary to use early maturing cultivars, practice early planting, and in eastern Kenya, shift to growing maize during the short-rains season.     

Evaluating the Accuracy and Effectiveness of Criminal Geographic Profiling Methods: The Case of Dandora,Kenya

Criminal geographic profiling (CGP) prioritizes offender search, extensively reducing the resources expended in criminal investigations. The utility of CGP has, however, remained unclear when variations in environmental characteristics and offense type are introduced. This study evaluates several CGP strategies with data from Dandora, a small but densely populated suburb of Nairobi, Kenya. The research employs error distance and search-cost measures to determine CGP accuracy. Characterized by much shorter journeys to crime than those observed in Western cities, this study discovers significant applicability of CGP strategies in prioritizing offender searches. The negative exponential CGP strategy is identified to generate the most accurate geo-profiles.     

社区参与对旅游地居民社区归属感的中介效应━━以浙江安吉为例

通过文献分析,引入旅游感知、旅游获益两个变量,构建旅游地社区参与—社区归属感结构模型,探讨社区参与对社区归属感的中介效应与传导机制。以浙江安吉为例,运用极大似然法进行参数估计,研究发现:①旅游感知和旅游获益是社区参与影响社区归属感的两个中介变量,都显著引起社区参与对社区归属感的部分中介效应。②旅游感知和旅游获益单独作为中介变量介入社区参与对社区归属感的影响时,旅游获益所起的部分中介作用显著大于旅游感知;二者同时介入时,旅游感知所起的部分中介作用显著大于旅游获益,共同引致的部分中介作用达到最大。③社区参与对社区归属感的影响机制存在两条途径,一条是直接影响路径,另一条是以旅游感知、旅游获益为中介变量的间接影响路径,间接路径稍低于直接路径。④提高旅游感知不仅要重视提高旅游地居民文化程度,还要考虑旅游地发展阶段的现实情况;改善旅游获益应尽可能满足旅游地社区居民的经济发展需要。     

基于场域理论的后单位社区空间生产研究——以徐矿社区为例

后单位时代社区公共性的式微是经济制度转型的社会特征,探究后单位社区的空间演变机制对可持续社区治理具有参考意义。文章桥接列斐伏尔的三元空间结构和布迪厄的4种资本类型,建立基于场域理论实践观上的空间生产研究框架。并以徐矿社区为案例,运用参与式观察和深度访谈的质性方法,分析从“一元连续型网络结构”到“多元离散型团体结构”的多维空间生产过程。结果表明：1）单位到后单位社区转型的空间生产差异机制一方面由单位制向社区制转型的制度变化所形塑,另一方面受现代性的自由流动和管制结构的调整等因素影响。2）后单位社区行动者在居民构成和权力关系的重组中调适惯习,在争夺社区资本的过程中,伴随制度空间的重构、物质空间的改造、社会空间的异化和主体意识的觉醒。3）以居委会为代言的政府话语在空间实践中采取规训策略构建理想的社区空间,与潜在的居民抵抗形成彼此连接但不融通的整体关系。4）后单位社区的空间生产主要由老旧小区改造的地方政策响应、空间生产中的权力博弈与倾斜、单位路径依赖累积与动能缺失、以及现代性流动下的熟人社会松动4种动力驱使。制定以居民为核心的治理目标与对策,促进社区权力的共同享有是未来可持续社区治理的重要导向。