Changes in intensity of wind erosion at different stages of degradation development in grasslands of Inner Mongolia, China

Overgrazing by increasing numbers of livestock in the Horqin Sandy Land of Inner Mongolia, China, has led to extensive degradation of the region's sandy steppes. Degraded grasslands are generally classified into four main types: fixed (least degradation), semi-fixed (light degradation), semi-shifting (moderate degradation) and shifting (severe degradation) sandy lands, representing four stages of degradation development. An experiment was conducted in the Horqin Sandy Land to investigate changes in intensity of wind erosion at different stages of degradation development in sandy grasslands and determine the extent to which surface wind erosion was affected by surface-related soil and vegetation factors through their effects on surface roughness length and wind regimes. Daily wind erosion rate was monitored at four sites of degraded grassland over an erosive period from 1 April to 10 June in 2001. Soil and vegetation properties for these sites were also measured twice: one in mid-April prior to the establishment of vegetation and again in mid-June after the establishment of vegetation. Relationships between surface roughness length and soil and vegetation variables were examined at each of the two stages of vegetation development. This study shows striking differences in the intensity of surface wind erosion among sites. The daily wind erosion rate in the fixed sandy land was, on average, only about 1/5 of the rate in the semi-fixed sandy land, 1/14 of the rate in the semi-shifting sandy land and 1/47 of the rate in the shifting sandy land suggesting a much higher resistance of the fixed sandy land to wind erosion compared to other sites. Differences in rate of wind erosion between sites were attributed to between-site differences in soil and vegetation properties that exerted significant effects on wind regimes by altering surface roughness length. At the pre-establishment stage of vegetation, surface roughness length was determined by a combination of litter amount on the ground, soil surface hardness and soil moisture content, with litter amount explaining the greatest proportion of the variation. At the post-establishment stage of vegetation, the development of the surface roughness effects was mainly governed by vegetation characteristics (vegetation cover in particular), while the effects of soil surface hardness and soil moisture on surface roughness length are likely to be masked by vegetation effects. The findings suggest that better management practices of restoring vegetation in degraded grasslands are required to reduce soil erosion losses and achieve a sustainable livestock production in the Horqin Sandy Land, an ecologically fragile sandy land ecosystem.     

Controls on the height and spacing of eolian ripples and transverse dunes: A numerical modeling investigation

Ripples and transverse dunes in areas of abundant sand supply increase in height and spacing as a function of time, grain size, and excess shear velocity. How and why each of these factors influence ripple and transverse dune size, however, is not precisely known. In this paper, the controls on the height and spacing of ripples and transverse dunes in areas of abundant sand supply are investigated using a numerical model for the formation of eolian bedforms from an initially flat surface. This bedform evolution model combines the basic elements of Werner's [Werner, B.T., 1995. Eolian dunes: Computer simulations and attractor interpretation. Geology 23, 1107–1110.] cellular automaton model of dune formation with a model for boundary layer flow over complex topography. Particular attention is paid to the relationship between bed shear stress and slope on the windward (stoss) side of evolving bedforms. Nonlinear boundary layer model results indicate that bed shear stresses on stoss slopes increase with increasing slope angle up to approximately 20°, then decrease with increasing slope angle as backpressure effects become limiting. In the bedform evolution model, the linear boundary layer flow model of Jackson and Hunt [Jackson, P.S., Hunt, J.C.R., 1975. Turbulent wind flow over a low hill. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 101, 929–955.], generalized to 3D, is modified to include the nonlinear relationship between bed shear stress and slope. Bed shear stresses predicted by the modified Jackson and Hunt flow model are then used to predict rates of erosion and deposition iteratively through time within a mass-conservative framework similar to Werner [Werner, B.T., 1995. Eolian dunes: Computer simulations and attractor interpretation. Geology 23, 1107–1110.]. Beginning with a flat bed, the model forms ripples that grow in height and spacing until a dynamic steady-state condition is achieved in which bedforms migrate downwind without further growth. The steady-state ripple spacing predicted by this model is approximately 3000 times greater than the aerodynamic roughness length of the initially flat surface, which is a function of grain size and excess shear velocity. Once steady-state ripples form, they become the dominant roughness element of the surface. The increase in roughness associated with ripple formation triggers the same bedform instability that created ripples, causing dunes to form at a larger scale. In this way, the numerical model of this paper suggests that ripples and dunes are genetically linked. Transverse dunes in this model have a steady-state height and spacing that is controlled by the effective roughness length of the rippled surface, which is shown to be on the order of 500 times greater than the original roughness length, but varies significantly with the details of ripple morphology. The model predictions for ripple and dune spacing and their controlling variables are consistent with field measurements from the published literature. The model of this paper provides a preliminary process-based understanding of the granulometric control of ripples and dunes in areas of abundant sand supply and unidirectional prevailing winds, and it argues for a genetic linkage between ripples and dunes via a scaling relationship between eolian bedform size and the aerodynamic roughness length.     

直立植被粗糙度和阻力分解的风洞实验研究

直立植被覆盖的床面上,由于直立植被消耗风动量,裸露床面上的剪切力因之降低,从而抑制风蚀。在风洞中用圆柱形木棒模拟直立植被,研究了地表总阻力系数C_D、直立植被阻力系数C_f和粗糙度z₀及其影响因素。实验结果表明,直立植被高度和密度对地表总阻力系数C_D和粗糙度z₀都有影响,但是程度不同。地表总剪切力分解为作用在直立植被上的剪切力和作用在裸露地表上的剪切力,表达式为τ=F_r/S+τ_s·S'/S。随着植被密度和高度增加,作用在植被上的剪切力增加,而作用在裸露地表上的剪切力减少。当侧影盖度L_c≥0.03时,τ_s可以忽略不计,用C_D=2u_*²/ u_z²+C_fL_c计算植被阻力系数C_f。计算出的直立植被阻力系数C_f与1/√L_c之间成线性关系,而与AR无关。这与Marshall在风洞中通过直接测量粗糙元的阻力计算出的粗糙元阻力系数遵循类似的规律。地表总阻力系数C_D与粗糙度z₀之间较好的相关性说明,只要采用适当的测量方法,用曲线拟合方法获得直立植被覆盖地表总阻力系数C_D和粗糙度z₀是可靠的。     

植被盖度对沙丘风沙流结构及风蚀量的影响

以科尔沁沙地不同植被盖度沙丘为研究对象,采用野外可移动风洞进行原位测试,开展了沙丘植被盖度对风沙流输沙率影响的研究,探讨了地表风蚀量与风速及植被盖度的关系。结果表明：空气动力学粗糙度随植被盖度增加先平缓后剧烈,与植被盖度相关关系呈三次函数增长。在各植被盖度下各层输沙率均随高度增加而递减,随风速增加而递增。同一植被盖度下风蚀量随风速增加而增大,符合幂函数或二次函数关系,但二次函数相关性更高。同一风速下风蚀量随植被盖度的增加呈阶梯式降低,在盖度小于27%时风蚀量平缓下降,盖度27%~43%时风蚀量急剧下降,盖度43%以上时风蚀量下降重新趋于平缓。相对截留率随风速增大而减小,随植被盖度增加而增大,沙丘草本植被盖度43%以上时具有较好的防风固沙效果,此时平均截留率达88.02%。     

Field determination for roughness length above the different non-erodible surfaces

Non-erodible elements, for its disturbance to the near-surface airflow, have been widely used in arid and semi-arid regions to protect the surface from wind erosion. Roughness length was usually used to evaluate the protection effect of non-erodible elements from wind erosion. In this study, the wind profiles above five types of non-erodible surfaces including gravel, wheat straw checkerboard barriers, cotton stem checkerboard barriers, shrubs, and herbs were measured and analyzed. The wind velocities above these surfaces increased with height approximately in logarithmic functions. The roughness length of different non-erodible surfaces was calculated by the functions of wind profiles. The results reveal that:(1) Roughness length increased with wind velocity in given wind velocity ranges. (2) On vegetative surfaces, wind did not effectively bend the stems. The threshold wind velocity for bending the stems of Achnatherum splendens was 4 m/s, 10 m/s for Agropyron cristatum, and for Artemisia ordosica, no obvious bending of stems even for wind velocity reaching 12 m/s. (3) Correlation analysis results show that the vegetation''s coverage and frontal area affect the roughness length more significantly than the other parameters. (4) The protective results of these non-erodible elements were evaluated. The checkerboard sand barriers made of cotton stem could provide more effective protection than that made of wheat straw. In the same coverage conditions, vegetation could provide more effective protection from wind erosion than gravel, and the blending of different non-erodible elements especially the combination of blending of vegeation and checkerboard sand barriers could provide more effective protection to the surface.     

毛乌素沙地南缘半固定沙丘风沙输移物特征

通过连续动态观测,获取毛乌素沙地南缘典型半固定沙丘表面风沙输移物,测量了风沙活动中不同沙丘部位的风蚀深度,并对风沙输移物及其养分进行了初步分析。结果表明:风沙活动期间沙丘顶部的风蚀深度最大,沙丘迎风坡次之,而丘间地的风蚀深度最小;沙丘顶部和迎风坡的输移物以中沙和细沙为主,养分含量较低,丘间地颗粒较细且养分含量较高;土壤养分含量与颗粒大小存在显著的负相关关系。迎风坡和丘顶处在风蚀亚环境而难以被植被固定,进而加速了风蚀过程;丘间地风沙活动较弱,风积物中养分含量较高的细颗粒物质促进了植被的发育,因而减弱了局地风速。     

Dynamic processes of a simple linear dune—a study in the Taklimakan Sand Sea, China

Samples of dune sands, surveys of the morphology and field measurements of wind velocity and direction of a simple linear dune in Taklimakan Sand Sea show that the airflow and sand flux vary with the change of wind direction on the dune surface. Decrease of the airflow stress on the lee flank does not result in much decrease of the sand flux because of the low threshold shear velocities and the airflow conditions. There are no significant relations between the sand flux on the lee flank and the angle of incidence of the airflow. The low threshold shear velocities and the maintenance of the sand flux at the lee flank are the main mechanisms keeping the linear shape of the dunes. Measurements of the sand flux shows that it reaches a maximum on the crest of the dune. The grain size of the transported sands has some differences compared to that of the dune surface. The sands transported are finer than that on the dune surface, but better sorted under the influence of the medium to low wind activity. The field experiment results exhibit that it is possible for the dunes to be shaped as linear dunes during the processes of accumulation and elongation.     

民勤绿洲边缘带灌丛沙丘防风作用研究

对民勤天然绿洲边缘带的固定、半固定及半流动风速灌丛沙丘实地观测表明,气流通过单个固定灌丛沙丘时,近地面平均风速降低4.4%,在965 m观测样线内降低57%,且风是连续降低的,愈靠近内侧降低得愈多,到绿洲内部农田边缘处时,平均风速仅有对照点的21%。深入了解灌丛沙丘对绿洲的防护机理,对于合理保护和恢复绿洲边缘带灌丛沙丘,避免绿洲遭受风沙侵袭具有重要意义。     

耕作土壤表面的空气动力学粗糙度及其对土壤风蚀的影响

土壤表面粗糙度是影响耕作土壤抗风蚀能力的一个重要因素。根据风速廓线计算得到的空气动力学粗糙度,可以简捷而有效地刻画土壤表面的空气动力学性质。风洞模拟实验表明,耕作土壤表面的空气动力学粗糙度主要取决于暴露地表的土块直径,在土块大致均匀分布的条件下,直径愈大,空气动力学粗糙度愈大。土壤风蚀速率则随空气动力学粗糙度的增大而迅速减小,二者具有良好的相关性。     

榆靖高速公路防护体系近地面流场特征

通过野外调查及风场观测,研究了在主导风向为NW-SE时,榆靖高速公路K404处上风向植被防护体系的地面流场变化特征。结果表明:（1）风速和地形存在较好的相关性。在流动沙丘和固定沙丘迎风坡,风速放大率均为正,背风坡为负,背风坡没有产生回流,风速整体减小。风速放大率计算结果表明,愈接近地面风速的变化程度越大,风速放大率绝对值与垂直高度呈指数函数关系,风速放大率的大小与沙丘类型无关。（2）接近公路的贴地面风速显著下降,现有植被防护体系能够缓解流沙危害,植被的防风效果较好。（3）流动、半固定、固定沙丘的迎风坡地表风速廓线基本符合对数律,丘顶和背风坡风速廓线偏离对数曲线,固定沙丘粗糙度高于流动沙丘。     

灌丛沙堆表面压力分布特征的实验研究

风成沙丘表面压力分布特征直接反映沙丘表面风蚀风积特点,因而是研究沙丘表面地貌过程的重要依据。依据风沙运动实验相似性理论,以新疆和田河流域实测柽柳沙堆为基础,按一定比例缩小制作成四组模型,选用起沙风速区间在6~14 m/s的5组不同风速分别对四组模型在风洞中作纯气流表面压力的模拟实验。结果表明,无植物覆盖的半球形沙堆和圆锥形沙堆的表面压力分布特征存在着较大差异,其中半球形沙堆迎风坡下部有较明显反射涡流,丘顶存在高压剪切气流区域,圆锥形沙堆则不存在这种风压变化,此外半球形和圆锥形沙堆两翼的高低压风蚀区域分布特点也不一致。人工“植物”引发的沙堆丘顶和背风坡区域表面风压的显著变化有利于截留沙尘、保护沙堆免受风蚀并促进沙堆增长。     

基于RWEQ的20世纪90年代以来内蒙古锡林郭勒盟土壤风蚀研究

土壤风蚀是中国北方地区重要的生态环境问题。锡林郭勒盟位于中国干旱、半干旱地区,是中国北方典型风蚀区,其特殊的地理位置又使得本区成为华北重要的生态屏障,为此锡林郭勒盟全区均划入了京津风沙源治理工程区。为了更好地阐明锡林郭勒盟的土壤风力侵蚀过程,指导区域的荒漠化防治,,基于气象、遥感数据,利用RWEQ模型定量分析了20 世纪90 年代以来锡林郭勒盟的土壤风蚀时空格局,揭示土壤风蚀的主要影响因素。研究表明：锡林郭勒盟多年平均土壤风蚀量为3.39 亿t。土壤风蚀强度以微度和轻度为主,主要集中在植被较好,风蚀力较低,降雨量较高,雪被覆盖地表时间较长的东、中部地区以及南部地区。侵蚀强度为中度以上的侵蚀区集中在苏尼特右旗、正镶白旗和正蓝旗的浑善达克沙地;90 年代以来,锡林郭勒盟的土壤风蚀强度总体上呈减弱趋势,主要与风场强度的减弱,植被盖度等的变化有关。土壤风蚀多发生于风蚀力较大的春季,风蚀强度较大区域的春季植被盖度与风蚀量呈显著负相关（r>0.7,p<0.01）,且近20 年植被盖度提升有效降低了该区域的土壤风蚀。     

Measurements and numerical simulations of the degree of activity and vegetation cover on parabolic dunes in north-eastern Brazil

In this work we present measurements of vegetation cover over parabolic dunes with different degrees of activation along the north-eastern Brazilian coast. We extend the local values of the vegetation cover density to the whole dune by correlating measurements with the relative brightness index C of high resolution QuickBird panchromatic satellite images of the dune field. We then introduce the vegetation data into a continuous model for vegetated dunes, coupling sand erosion and vegetation growth, and perform simulations of the evolution of the morphology and vegetation cover of parabolic dunes. Finally, from the comparison of both, the measurements and the simulation results, we show that the model is able to predict the dune shape and the vegetation distribution of real parabolic dunes as result of the evolution of a blow-out.     

农田休闲期不同保护性耕作措施的防风效应研究

保护性耕作是旱作农田土壤风蚀防治的必要措施\.通过野外试验,对深松、浅耕、翻耕覆盖、免耕油菜低茬和高茬、免耕小麦低茬和高茬等7种保护性耕作措施和传统翻耕、草地两种对照下0～4 m的风流场进行了观测,对各种下垫面上空气动力学粗糙度、摩阻速度、风速绝对脉动强度和相对脉动强度进行对比分析。结果显示,不同保护性耕作措施降低风的侵蚀力,防治土壤风蚀的机制不同。留茬主要通过增加地表空气动力学粗糙度和摩阻速度,利用作物残茬和秸秆等粗糙元分解风对地表的剪切应力,降低风蚀强度。而深松、浅耕、翻耕覆盖等措施在增加地表粗糙度和摩阻速度上效果不如留茬,但近地表0\^05 m处风速脉动较弱,相同风速下对地表的剪切应力较小,土壤风蚀速率降低。此外,作物残茬、秸秆和牧草等粗糙元的高度、密度及直立性均对下垫面的空气动力学粗糙度、摩阻速度及风速脉动有一定影响。     

地形对包兰铁路沙坡头段防护体系的影响

选择沙坡头铁路防护体系典型断面,利用野外风场观测与风洞模拟,讨论地形在道路防沙体系中的作用。结果表明,防护体系前沿栅栏沙丘下风向10倍沙丘高度的水平范围内,地表摩阻风速通常小于临界值;风速递减系数随防护距离的增大而增大,地形倾斜和起伏对贴地层风力减弱的贡献占防护体系风速削弱程度的43%。自流沙区至铁路路基,潜在输沙率迅速波动降低,其中地形变化使得防护体系内潜在输沙率降低50%以上。这表明,地形是沙坡头铁路防护体系发挥卓越功能的重要因素,栅栏沙丘已成为防护体系的重要构成部分。     

宁夏河东沙地不同植被覆盖度的土壤起沙特征试验研究

为了评价宁夏河东沙地不同生态破坏与植被恢复措施的防沙治沙效果,利用自行设计的5个高度降尘接沙仪和4台内蒙古农牧大学生产的水平输沙接沙仪,通过人工吹风的方式,于2004年5月20—23日在不同植被覆盖度的下垫面上,开展不同垂直高度和不同距离的降尘试验和不同垂直高度的沙尘粒子截留试验。植被类型为自然裸露沙丘、低覆盖度天然草场、围栏禁牧的自然恢复草场、人工草方格沙丘治理结合飞播的生态恢复治理草地及原退耕还牧的复垦农田。结果表明,裸露沙丘土壤风蚀最严重,防沙治沙以围栏禁牧效果最好,其次为草网格治理,复垦农田和流动沙丘均容易起沙。     

乌兰布和沙漠东北缘地表风沙流结构特征

在国家林业局磴口荒漠生态站长期监测的基础上,利用多种积沙仪,对乌兰布和沙漠东北缘流动沙丘、油蒿半固定沙丘、白刺半固定沙丘、油蒿固定沙丘、白刺固定沙丘5种典型下垫面近地面（0～100 cm）的风沙流输沙量进行了实地观测和对比分析。结果表明：（1） 输沙率（q）随高度（h）增加呈幂函数（q=ah^-b,R²≥0.8409）规律衰减,随风速（v）增大呈幂函数（q=av^b,R²≥0.9256）规律增加,42.8%～70.7%的输沙量分布在10 cm高度内,67.6%～90.0%的输沙量分布于30 cm高度内。当地表植被盖度达到40%以上时,输沙率下降至无植被覆盖地表输沙率的6.6%以下,可有效阻止地表风蚀。（2） 沙物质主要由粒径为50～250 μm的细沙和极细沙构成,各高度层风蚀物粒度组成服从单峰态分布,峰值在100～250 μm。随高度增加,风蚀物粒径范围趋于变窄,粒径趋于更细。（3） 起沙风多出现在WSW和NW方向,占全年起沙风的53.19%。风沙流中跃移输沙、蠕移输沙的空间分布在理论上应与风向频率分布基本一致,差异性主要由各方位风的强度和持续时间等因素导致。研究结果可为该区域防沙工程设计提供理论参考。     

戈壁风蚀面与植被覆盖面地表性质粗糙度长度的确定

以Monin-Obukhov相似性理论为基础, 利用量纲分析法分别推导出不同层结稳定度下确定戈壁风蚀面与植被覆盖面空气动力学参数的物理模型, 并利用该模型研究了粗糙度长度与粗糙元性质, 流经近地层流体特征以及大气层结稳定度之间的关系。得出以下结论: 戈壁风蚀面上空气动力学粗糙度长度与砾石粒径、高度、覆盖度、自由风速、摩擦速度以及大气层结稳定度有关; 植被覆盖面空气动力学粗糙度长度取决于植被类型、植被高度、覆盖度、零平面位移高度、自由风速、摩擦速度以及大气层结稳定度。     

植被覆盖地表空气动力学粗糙度与零平面位移高度的模拟分析

 空气动力学粗糙度、零平面位移高度是植被覆盖地表的两个重要的空气动力学特征参数,利用数值计算的方法,运用Matlab软件编程,对内蒙古四子王旗草地地表的空气动学粗糙度、零平面位移高度进行模拟计算、绘图及分析。得到了在8种植被密度和6种植被高度情况下摩阻速度、空气动学粗糙度、零平面位移高度与风速的关系,并与野外实验数据进行对比分析,发现模拟值可以很好的反映空气动力学参数的性质。进而分别得到了包括植被密度的风速与摩阻速度、空气动学粗糙度的关系式和包括植被高度的风速与摩阻速度、空气动学粗糙度的关系式,这有助于进一步研究该地区草地风沙运动机理,以及床面与近地层气流相互作用的力学性质。     

Numerical modelling of flow structures over idealized transverse aeolian dunes of varying geometry

A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model (PHOENICS™ 3.5) previously validated for wind tunnel measurements is used to simulate the streamwise and vertical velocity flow fields over idealized transverse dunes of varying height (h) and stoss slope basal length (L). The model accurately reproduced patterns of: flow deceleration at the dune toe; stoss flow acceleration; vertical lift in the crest region; lee-side flow separation, re-attachment and reversal; and flow recovery distance. Results indicate that the flow field over transverse dunes is particularly sensitive to changes in dune height, with an increase in height resulting in flow deceleration at the toe, streamwise acceleration and vertical lift at the crest, and an increase in the extent of, and strength of reversed flows within, the lee-side separation cell. In general, the length of the separation zone varied from 3 to 15 h from the crest and increased over taller, steeper dunes. Similarly, the flow recovery distance ranged from 45 to >75 h and was more sensitive to changes in dune height. For the range of dune shapes investigated in this study, the differing effects of height and stoss slope length raise questions regarding the applicability of dune aspect ratio as a parameter for explaining airflow over transverse dunes. Evidence is also provided to support existing research on: streamline curvature and the maintenance of sand transport in the toe region; vertical lift in the crest region and its effect on grainfall delivery; relations between the turbulent shear layer and downward forcing of flow re-attachment; and extended flow recovery distances beyond the separation cell. Field validation is required to test these findings in natural settings. Future applications of the model will characterize turbulence and shear stress fields, examine the effects of more complex isolated dune forms and investigate flow over multiple dunes.