On temporal and spatial distribution of seismic apparent stresses in Yunnan area

Introduction In recent years the study of the digital seismology has made great progress due to the wide use of the broadband digital records. And many fine results of the focal theory have obtained. The focal theory mainly studies the physical process of the seismic fracture and production of the seismic wave, as well as its traveling process. One of the great progresses is to simulate the fracture process in the active fault. Especially a new concept of the fracture mechanics has been intro…     

青海共和7.0级强震的前兆异常与时空分布

在研究了 1 990年 4月 2 6日共和 7.0级强震前 ,青海东北部地区的小震活动和前兆异常总台频次的变化 ,以及地下流体 ,电磁 ,形变等前兆异常的时空演化特征的基础上 ,得出在大震前 1～ 7个月前兆异常台项总频次的升高和 2 .0～ 3.9级地震形成的条带和空区 ,以及 3.5级以上地震频次增加在时间上是同步的。而且 ,2 .0～ 3.9级地震形成的条带和空区对未来大震的震中位置具有指示意义。这种前兆异常在时间上的同步性可能是大震前的异常由中期向短期过渡的时间标志 ,震前 2个月出现的前兆台项总频次异常峰值以及形变前兆异常场兆变化则是异常进入短临的时间。     

The spatial and temporal distribution of heavy metals in sediments of Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong

Victoria Harbour has received substantial loadings of pollutants from industrial and municipal wastewater discharged since the 1950s. Inputs of contaminants have declined dramatically during the last two decades as a result of better controls at the source and improved wastewater treatment facilities. To assess the spatial and temporal changes of metal contaminants in sediments in Victoria Harbour, core and grab sediments were collected. The central harbour areas were generally contaminated with heavy metals. The spatial distribution of trace metals can probably be attributed to the proximity of major urban and industrial discharge points, and to the effect of tidal flushing in the harbour. In the sediment cores, the highest concentrations of trace metals were observed to have accumulated during the 1950s-1980s, corresponding with the period of rapid urban and industrial development in Hong Kong. From the late 1980s, there has been a major decline in the concentrations of trace metals, due to a reduction in industrial activities and to the enactment of wastewater pollution controls in the territory. The Pb isotopic compositions of the sediments revealed the anthropogenic inputs of Pb to the harbour. The (206)Pb/(207)Pb ratios varied from 1.154 to 1.190, which were lower than those of background geological materials in Hong Kong ((206)Pb/(207)Pb: 1.201-1.279). The data also indicated that the Pb in the harbour sediments most likely originated from mixed sources, including the leaded gasoline used in the past and other anthropogenic sources.     

The spatial and temporal distribution of heavy metals in sediments of Victoria Harbour,Hong Kong

Victoria Harbour has received substantial loadings of pollutants from industrial and municipal wastewater discharged since the 1950s. Inputs of contaminants have declined dramatically during the last two decades as a result of better controls at the source and improved wastewater treatment facilities. To assess the spatial and temporal changes of metal contaminants in sediments in Victoria Harbour, core and grab sediments were collected. The central harbour areas were generally contaminated with heavy metals. The spatial distribution of trace metals can probably be attributed to the proximity of major urban and industrial discharge points, and to the effect of tidal flushing in the harbour. In the sediment cores, the highest concentrations of trace metals were observed to have accumulated during the 1950s–1980s, corresponding with the period of rapid urban and industrial development in Hong Kong. From the late 1980s, there has been a major decline in the concentrations of trace metals, due to a reduction in industrial activities and to the enactment of wastewater pollution controls in the territory. The Pb isotopic compositions of the sediments revealed the anthropogenic inputs of Pb to the harbour. The ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios varied from 1.154 to 1.190, which were lower than those of background geological materials in Hong Kong (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb: 1.201–1.279). The data also indicated that the Pb in the harbour sediments most likely originated from mixed sources, including the leaded gasoline used in the past and other anthropogenic sources.     

Detailed investigation of preserved maar structures by combined geophysical surveys

The detection of completely preserved maar structures is important not only for underground mapping but also for paleoclimate research because laminated maar lake sediments may contain a very detailed archive of climate history. Objective evidence for the existence of such structures can only be provided by geophysics and boreholes. The combination of gravity and magnetic ground surveys appears to be an excellent tool to detect and identify buried maar structures. Their prominent properties are an almost circular gravity minimum corresponding to a crater filled with limnic sediments of low density, and a magnetic anomaly caused by a pyroclastic or basaltic body in the diatreme which indicates the volcanic character. Seismic measurements provide the most detailed information about the internal structure of the maar sediments. Zones of low seismic reflectivity and very low density represent sediments of the late maar-lake period. The early lake period is indicated by debris flow deposits and turbidites represented by seismic reflectors. The seismic sections clearly reveal the bowl-like structure of the maar. Outside this bowl-like structure, there are only a few reflections, which represent the basement. Taking into account the shape of the gravity anomaly, seismic information allows geometrical modelling of the maar structure. Optimal drilling sites can be selected based on the results of geophysical surveying. Comparing the results of combined geophysical surveys above two maar structures of different ages yields a marked similarity in their geophysical pattern.Editorial responsibility: J McPhie     

初值和海温强迫对延伸期可预报性时空分布的影响

利用全球谱模式T106L19和增长模繁殖法,分别在气候海温和预测海温强迫下,进行了动力延伸集合预报试验.基于方差分析思想,利用集合预报结果,定义和计算了初值影响指数、海温强迫影响指数、潜在可预报性指数以及波动活动指数.通过分析四个指数,揭示了初值和海温强迫对延伸期可预报性时空分布以及潜在可预报性的影响,并探讨了其影响机理.结果表明：初值影响指数分布具有地域和季节的差异,初值的影响在中高纬度地区大于热带地区;相同季节,海温强迫影响指数分布与初值影响指数分布相似;潜在可预报性指数呈带状分布,大值集中在热带地区,且在低纬度地区,高层的潜在可预报性大于低层;初值和海温强迫对延伸期可预报性时空分布的影响,依赖于大气环流形势,初值和海温强迫影响的显著区正是大气长波的活跃区和西风急流区,急流区的强风切变为长波活动提供了斜压不稳定能量,而长波的发展调控着初值和海温强迫的影响,这说明延伸期的可预报性具有明显的流依赖性,大气外强迫的作用也与大气内部的动力过程密切相关.     

基于TRMM卫星多传感器资料揭示的亚洲季风区雷暴时空分布特征

利用16年（1998-2013）的热带降水测量任务卫星（TRMM）降水雷达和闪电成像仪等多传感器观测资料,分析了亚洲季风区内雷暴和强雷暴的空间分布、季节变化及日变化等气候特征.文中取闪电数大于1的雷达降水特征为雷暴,并将闪电频数在前10%的雷暴定义为强雷暴.结果表明：雷暴活动主要集中在陆地及近海区域,陆地与海洋上的雷暴密度之比约为4.4：1,强雷暴密度之比约为7.4：1.0-10°N纬度带内雷暴数占总雷暴的比例最大（占总数的31.7%）,而强雷暴则在20°N-30°N区间最为活跃（34.5%）.雷暴与闪电密度的空间分布在低纬度区域（0-30°N）较为一致,但在中纬度地区（30°N-36°N）呈现出不同的分布特征,即从西部的青藏高原向东部的江淮流域,雷暴密度逐渐减少但闪电密度逐渐增加;而强雷暴与闪电密度的空间分布基本一致.受亚洲夏季风活动影响,低纬度地区强雷暴更容易发生在春季,强中心位于喜马拉雅山南麓东端,次中心位于中南半岛,而中纬度地区在夏季最为活跃,强中心和次中心则分别位于喜马拉雅山南麓西端和中国江淮流域.陆地上雷暴主要集中在午后至傍晚,少数区域受局地环流和气象条件的影响夜雷暴活动频繁,而海洋上雷暴更易发生在午夜至清晨.

     

地球物理测井在多年冻土厚度和地下冰调查中的应用

基于青藏高原多年冻土区三个钻孔的地球物理测井数据和钻孔编录资料,我们对多年冻土厚度和多年冻土层内地下冰与地球物理测井数据之间的关系进行了相关的分析研究.研究表明,当地层为土壤类型时,可以使用井径和侧向测井曲线来判断多年冻土层厚度;而当地层为致密的基岩时,不能使用上述两种测井曲线来判断多年冻土层厚度.此外,还可以使用长源距伽马-伽马曲线和侧向测井曲线来识别多年冻土层内部分地下冰层的位置,其前提条件是地下冰层具有一定的厚度,或即使厚度较薄,但连续出现.这一研究结果对于利用地球物理测井曲线来调查多年冻土情况具有一定的应用价值.     

Litter burial and exhumation: spatial and temporal distribution on a cobble pocket beach.

A cobble beach (-6 diameter to -8 diameter) located on the South Wales coastline, UK, was studied over a three-month winter period to assess litter input levels. After total beach litter clearance, six surveys were conducted at consecutive spring tides which involved marking of previously unrecorded litter. The beach was soon inundated with debris, predominantly plastic beverage containers. Some marked litter was found to disappear from the beach surface, re-emerging weeks later which suggests that the potential for litter burial has been underestimated in litter research. Higher wave energies between surveys coincided with higher levels of previously unseen litter. These new inputs consisted of sea borne and exhumed litter. Items larger than the surrounding cobbles were found to work their way back to the surface of the beach after burial, smaller items remained buried. Pits dug into the cobble ridge confirmed the burial of mainly small items.     

海洋地球物理测量中GPS数据问题与处理

海上走航式地球物理测量的精度在很大程度上依赖于GPS（全球导航定位授时系统）数据观测的精度.由于各种原因,船载GPS测量会遇到多种问题.对记录到的GPS数据进行处理是获得高质量GPS数据一个不可缺少的环节.本文通过对多个海洋重磁调查航次的GPS观测数据进行处理,介绍了船载GPS测量中遇到的一些典型问题,以及相应的数据处理方法.本文指出,为保证数据采集的质量,船载GPS测量一般应使用两台GPS接收机同时进行测量.在数据处理时,将其中记录较稳定、可靠的一台GPS接收机作为主机,而另一台作为辅机.数据处理时,以主机记录的数据为主,当主机数据缺失时,则使用附机的数据作为补充.我们的长期观测结果表明,主机和附机之间总是存在时间差,目前我们没有发现时间差出现的规律和这种时间差出现的确切原因.用附机的数据来补充主机数据时,应该进行时间差调整.对于同一台GPS接收机的数据,本文介绍了野值、零值、重复值、时间间断和航迹间断等现象.同时文章中介绍了对于野值、零值、重复值、时间间断和航迹间断等数据,在进行数据处理时,可用剔除、插值、补遗等办法对上述出现的问题进行处理.本文认为,天气状况、卫星分布、天线运动姿态、接收机工作的稳定性、解码模块、运算〖JP3〗速度、多路径效应等都可能对GPS观测造成影响,但目前我们还并不能确定造成海上GPS测量出现问题的确切原因.     

Design,modelling and imaging of marine seismic swarm surveys

Autonomous marine vehicles instrumented with seismic sensors allow for new efficient seismic survey designs. One such design is the swarm survey, where a group, or swarm, of slow moving autonomous marine vehicles record seismic data from shots fired by a source vessel sailing around circles within the swarm. The size of the swarm is dictated by the maximum offset requirement of the survey, and it can be shaped to acquire wide‐ and full‐azimuth data. The swarm survey design equation describes the relationship between the source and receiver positions of the survey and the subsurface coverage or fold. It is used to adapt the swarm to the seismic survey requirements and to calculate survey duration time estimates as function of available equipment. It is shown that a survey conducted by a slowly moving swarm requires six times fewer shots than an equivalent seabed node survey conducted over 85.5 km². Swarm surveys can also be adapted to efficiently conduct infill surveys and replace multi‐vessel undershoots. The efficiency of the survey can further be increased when the autonomous marine vehicles are towing short streamers with multiple receivers. Synthetic tests show that the seismic images for swarm surveys are comparable to those from streamer surveys, while little variation in image quality is found when reducing the number of autonomous marine vehicles but equipping them with a short streamer with multiple receivers.     

Near surface geophysical surveys with a high frequency mutual impedance measuring system

Relationships for the mutual impedance of horizontal coplanar, vertical coplanar, perpendicular and vertical coaxial loop antenna arrays operating at a high frequency, located over a layered conducting medium, have been derived. The relationships take into account the occurrence of displacement currents in both the free space and the conducting medium. The relations can be used for calculating the earth parameters in geophysical prospecting. The use of high frequency antenna array makes it possible to determine distributions of apparent resistivity as well as apparent electrical permittivity. The potential application of the measurements of mutual impedance of loop antennas operating at a high frequency to the geophysical examinations is presented. The measuring system developed for this purpose is described. A simple method of interpreting the mutual impedance measurements to obtain the traces of apparent resistivity and apparent permittivity of the investigated earth is given.     

The spatial and temporal characteristics of the seasonal precipitation over India

Three extreme cases of seasonal precipitation over 31 contiguous meteorological subdivisions of India were decomposed into orthogonal components using eigenvector technique to examine their spatial and temporal behaviour. The first two eigenvectors combined were found to represent the seasonal precipitation over India to a sufficient high degree of accuracy retaining 90–95 percent of the total variance. These two components show high spatial similarity in all the three cases of the precipitation examined.The first component is characterized by a coherent variation over the area with large coherent variation over the north-east India, Central India and the west coast of India. The coefficients of the component show annual behaviour with the peak values generally reached during July. This component is representative of the summer monsoon (June–September) mode.The second component characterizes out of phase variation in precipitation between Central India, adjoining parts of the area, and peninsular India. The coefficients of the component show the semi-annual oscillation. It appears that the role of the second eigenvector might be to represent regionality of the seasonal march of the monsoon rain.     

天山地块强震活动的时空特征研究

通过对天山地块近百年地震活动时空特征分析表明: ① M_S≥7.0地震沿块体边界成带分布, 南边界带强于北边界带, 南、 北边界带的西部强于东部, 南天山西段是地震活动水平最高、 复发周期最短、 强震序列类型最复杂、 地震危险性最大的地区; ② 地震活动在时间上显示出准周期性, 表现为M_S≥7.0地震具有活跃与平静的交替性及5级以上地震活动度曲线的起伏变化; 最大熵谱计算地震活动度的显著周期为40年, 小波分析给出40年左右周期系数的时间曲线表明, 7级以上地震都发生在曲线由最高值至最低值的下降段, 而上升段为强震的平静期; ③ 在强震活跃期及平静期, 中强以上地震(M_S≥5.0)在块体的不同部位(地块南、 北边界带及块体内部)的分布状态和活动水平存在明显的差异, 在活跃期南、 北边界带中强以上地震的集中性和成带性强, 且彼此活动水平差异小, 但与块体内部差异大; 而在平静期南、 北边界带的活动水平差异大, 块体内部地震活动显著增强; ④ 在活跃期, 天山地块南、 北边界带强震活动存在一定的呼应关系, 当一个边发生强震后, 另一边在数天至数年也存在发生强震的可能。     

Visualization of spatial patterns and temporal trends for aerial surveillance of illegal oil discharges in western Canadian marine waters

This paper examines the use of exploratory spatial analysis for identifying hotspots of shipping-based oil pollution in the Pacific Region of Canada’s Exclusive Economic Zone. It makes use of data collected from fiscal years 1997/1998 to 2005/2006 by the National Aerial Surveillance Program, the primary tool for monitoring and enforcing the provisions imposed by MARPOL 73/78. First, we present oil spill data as points in a “dot map” relative to coastlines, harbors and the aerial surveillance distribution. Then, we explore the intensity of oil spill events using the Quadrat Count method, and the Kernel Density Estimation methods with both fixed and adaptive bandwidths. We found that oil spill hotspots where more clearly defined using Kernel Density Estimation with an adaptive bandwidth, probably because of the “clustered” distribution of oil spill occurrences. Finally, we discuss the importance of standardizing oil spill data by controlling for surveillance effort to provide a better understanding of the distribution of illegal oil spills, and how these results can ultimately benefit a monitoring program.     

The temporal and spatial scales of rocky coast geomorphology: a commentary

Rocky shores are complex landforms that result from marine erosion and subaerial weathering. They are time‐integrated features where their present day form is the result of instantaneous erosion, often on the millimetre to sub‐metre scale, occurring for centuries to millennia. As a result, research on rocky coasts focuses on a range of temporal and spatial scales from granular‐scale swelling of a rock surface and instantaneous wave impact to modelling millennial‐scale sea level drivers. The challenge for rocky coast researchers is either to upscale or to downscale their results to the human‐timescales of greatest interest to managers. The research presented in Earth Surface Processes and Landforms over the past 3 years highlights the range of spatial and temporal approaches to the study of coastal cliffs and shore platforms. We identify a key temporal and spatial gap in current research. Seasonal–annual timeframes over hundreds of metres to kilometre scale studies appear to be lacking and are likely critical in understanding the future evolution of rocky coasts, especially their response to climate change. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The occurrence, spatial and temporal distribution, and environmental routes of tetracycline resistance and integrase genes in Crassostrea virginica beds

Rapid spread of antibiotic resistance genes has placed them under consideration as emerging environmental contaminants. The occurrence and distribution of tetracycline resistance genes (TRG) and integrons (INT) have been monitored for 2 years in seven oyster beds located in the Altamaha River (Georgia, USA) estuary. TRG/INT profiles varied both temporally (p < 0.025) and spatially between oysters and their environment (p < 0.005) suggesting shifts in sources of contamination and selection of TRG/INT carriers by oysters. The latter was confirmed via analysis of tet(D) and tet(G) distribution between oysters and their environment. Uncommon class 3 integrons dominated the integrons’ profile in oysters. The frequency of TRG/INT incidents correlated (R² ? 0.9) to (i) dissolved solids, (ii) potential water density, and (iii) turbidity but not to the amount of local precipitation suggesting the watershed as the dominant source of TRG/INT contamination and other than directly rainfall-caused run-offs as its environmental route.     

MS8.1昆仑山口西地震和MS8.0汶川地震余震序列的时空分布特征和持续时间的对比

2001年M_S8.1昆仑山口西地震和2008年M_S8.0汶川地震发生在同一构造单元,但其余震序列无论在个数、空间分布,还是持续时间上都表现了显著的差别.余震通常由主震区域内背景场地震活动性受到的扰动所引起,这样的扰动则来自于主震造成的应力场状态的变化.本文从滑移速率和状态相依赖的摩擦定律(Rate- and State-Dependent Friction Law)出发,结合区域主震前后的地震活动性资料,定量地估算了这两个大地震后余震序列可能的持续时间,并对不同模型所得的结果进行了比较和对比.结果表明,汶川地震余震持续时间约为昆仑山口西地震余震持续时间的20倍,这是由于昆仑山口西地震和汶川地震余震序列的个数和持续时间不仅与地震成核过程的状态变化有关,还与作用在断层面上的正应力 σ_N 和剪应力加载速率 τ· 的大小有关.主震前后剪应力速率 τ· 的差别导致了在相同大小应力扰动ΔCFS之后的余震的活动性变化率的明显不同,导致了所触发的余震的个数和余震序列的持续时间的巨大差别.通过对昆仑山口西地震和汶川地震余震序列的时空分布特征和持续时间的定量化认识,可以为地震灾害定量评估提供合理和有益的物理参数.     

Using geophysical surveys to test tracer‐based storage estimates in headwater catchments

Hydrogeophysical surveys were carried out in a 3.2 km² Scottish catchment where previous isotope studies inferred significant groundwater storage that makes important contributions to streamflow. We used electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to characterize the architecture of glacial drifts and make an approximation of catchment‐scale storage. Four ERT lines (360–535 m in length) revealed extensive 5–10 m deep drift cover on steeper slopes, which extends up to 20–40 m in valley bottom areas. Assuming low clay fractions, we interpret variable resistivity as correlating with variations in porosity and water content. Using Archie's Law as a first approximation, we compute likely bounds for storage along the ERT transects. Areas of highest groundwater storage occur in valley bottom peat soils (up to 4 m deep) and underlying drift where up to 10 000 mm of precipitation equivalent may be stored. This is consistent with groundwater levels which indicate saturation to within 0.2 m of the surface. However, significant slow groundwater flow paths occur in the shallower drifts on steeper hillslopes, where point storage varies between ~1000 mm–5000 mm. These fluxes maintain saturated conditions in the valley bottom and are recharged from drift‐free areas on the catchment interfluves. The surveys indicate that catchment scale storage is >2000 mm which is consistent with tracer‐based estimates. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

大尺度地幔动力学研究的现状和展望

这篇综述讨论大空间、大时间尺度的地幔动力学近几十年的发展和现状,着重讨论了相关的观测及其动力学意义.这些观测包括现在地球的板块运动的基本特性,中、长波重力异常及大地水准面异常,地震层析成像得到的地幔结构,以及过去10亿年超级大陆Pangea和Rodinia的形成、裂解和演化,及火山岩浆活动.关于地球动力学模型的讨论是围绕着这些相关的观测而进行的.涉及到的一些主要问题包括以下.第一,地幔动力学研究显示,地震层析成像得到的下地幔的二阶结构（比如核幔边界附近的LLSVP结构）,和俯冲带的快速异常体,可以解释为过去1亿年左右的板块运动和地幔对流的结果;第二,地幔三维结构作为地幔对流的驱动力,是导致中、长波重力及大地水准面异常的直接原因;结合地幔动力学模拟,观测的大地水准面异常对地幔黏性结构提供了强有力的约束,很可靠的结果之一是下地幔的黏性比上地幔要高至少一个量级,并且最近的研究确定软流圈的存在;第三,过去10亿年大陆块体经历过的Rodinia和Pangea两期超级大陆的形成和破裂是地幔动力学在地表的反映.地幔结构在Pangea形成过程中是一阶结构（即一个半球是冷的下降流,而另一个半球是热的上涌流）主导的,而现在的二阶为主导的地幔结构是Pangea形成后,破裂前或破裂过程中才形成的;地幔动力学和其他研究支持地幔结构在一阶和二阶间转换的1-2-1模型;第四,板块构造在地球上的起源和动力机制依然是充满争议和不确定的课题,但是这些问题同时也是重要的地球动力学基本问题.