Physical properties of the 1980 Mount St. Helens cryptodome magma

 Physical properties of cryptodome and remelted samples of the Mount St. Helens grey dacite have been measured in the laboratory. The viscosity of cryptodome dacite measured by parallel–plate viscometry ranges from 10.82 to 9.94 log₁₀ η (Pa s) (T=900–982  °C), and shrinkage effects were dilatometrically observed at T>900  °C. The viscosity of remelted dacite samples measured by the micropenetration method is 10.60–9.25 log₁₀ η (Pa s) (T=736–802  °C) and viscosities measured by rotational viscometry are 3.22–1.66 log₁₀ η (Pa s) (T=1298–1594  °C). Comparison of the measured viscosity of cryptodome dacitic samples with the calculated viscosity of corresponding water-bearing melt demonstrates significant deviations between measured and calculated values. This difference reflects a combination of the effect of crystals and vesicles on the viscosity of dacite as well as the insufficient experimental basis for the calculation of crystal-bearing vesicular melt viscosities at low temperature. Assuming that the cryptodome magma of the 18 May 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption was residing at 900  °C with a phenocryst content of 30 vol.%, a vesicularity of 36 vol.% and a bulk water content of 0.6 wt.%, we estimate the magma viscosity to be 10^10.8 Pa s. Received: 25 August 1996 / Accepted: 19 July 1997     

全球12000aBP以来火山爆发记录及对气候变化影响的评估

全新世气候变化的动力成因,至今未有定论．大量地质证据揭示了全新世气候多次降温,并反映出与火山爆发有时问对应关系．现代气候观测证明了火山灰进入平流层滞留后随环流扩散成为太阳辐射的屏障层,从而导致地表降温．停留在地质火山爆发和伞新世气候在逐个点遥相关研究上,难以从宏观机制上加以认识．本文试图对地质火山影响古气候变化的定性推论与现代火山气候效应这两个环节,给予动力机制上的联系和分析．通过火山地质记录的现代气候效应类比,对地质火山数据进行集成,所反映的五次全新世强火山爆发集中期与地质记录的寒冷期／降温期／新冰期能够对应．对火山爆发集中期和平静期两种气候状况,通过三维大气环流模式进行气候数值模拟,评估火山灰产生的不同区域的降温效应．模拟结果表明,火山灰阳伞效应造成北半球年平均温度普遍降低,且具有明显的区域差异．高纬度降温幅度大于低纬度,夏季降温幅度大于冬季．全新世火山影响气候时空记录和火山灰敏感性气候试验为进一步探讨全新世气候变化成因提供重要的科学依据,也为最终认识现代气候系统变化以及对未来十年一百年尺度的气候预测提供重要的参照系．     

Endogenous growth of a Miocene submarine dacite cryptodome, Rebun Island, Hokkaido, Japan

Momo-iwa, Rebun Island, Hokkaido, Japan, is a dacite cryptodome 200–300 m across and 190 m high. The dome is inferred to have intruded wet, poorly consolidated sediment in a shallow marine environment. The internal structure of the dome is concentric, with a massive core, banded rim, and narrow brecciated border, all of which are composed of compositionally uniform feldspar-phyric dacite. Boundaries between each of the zones are distinct but gradational. The massive core consists of homogeneous coherent (unfractured) dacite and is characterized by radial columnar joints 60–200 cm across. The banded rim encircles the massive core and is 40 m wide. It is characterized by large-scale flow banding parallel to the dome surface. The flow banding comprises alternating partly crystalline and more glassy bands 80–150 cm thick. The outermost brecciated border is up to 80 cm thick, and consists of in situ breccia and blocky peperite. The in situ breccia comprises polyhedral dacite clasts 5–20 cm across and a cogenetic granular matrix. The blocky peperite consists of polyhedral dacite clasts 0.5–2 cm across separated by the host sediment (mudstone). The internal structures of the dome suggest endogenous growth involving a continuous magma supply during a single intrusive phase and simple expansion from the interior. Although much larger, the internal structures of Momo-iwa closely resemble those of lobes in subaqueous felsic lobe-hyaloclastite lavas.     

Estimation of shear-wave attenuation characteristics for the Klyuchevskoi volcanic edifice

This paper reports a study of intrinsic attenuation and scattering in the Klyuchevskoi volcanic edifice. The data set consisted of small volcano-tectonic earthquakes occurring as deep as 30 km beneath Klyuchevskoi Volcano and recorded by radio telemetry seismograph stations installed on the edifice and near it. The digital seismograms of small volcano-tectonic earthquakes were processed by the multiple lapse time window analysis (MLTWA) method currently in use in seismology. The method uses experimental normalized integrals of 3D seismic energy density determined from several time windows applied to earthquake records that have been put through bandpass filters. The parameters that characterize the intrinsic attenuation and scattering of seismic energy of small volcano-tectonic earthquakes in Klyuchevskoi Volcano were estimated by adjusting the coefficients to ensure the best fit between experimental and theoretical integrals. An analytical solution to the seismic energy transfer equation was used to calculate the theoretical integrals of 3D seismic energy. Reliable estimates of the parameters that characterize the intrinsic attenuation and scattering in the material of the Klyuchevskoi volcanic edifice have been obtained. Our estimates of the Q for the edifice are below those derived by other workers for the Kamchatka lithosphere.     

The influence of edifice slope and substrata on volcano spreading

Gravitational volcano spreading is caused by flow of weak substrata due to volcanic loading, and is now a process known to affect many edifices. The process produces extension in the upper edifice, evidenced by gräben and normal faults, and compression at the base, seen in strike–slip faults and thrusts. Where spreading is identified, host volcanoes have a range of fault densities, variable rift and gräben shapes, and different degrees of structural asymmetry. Previous studies have suggested a link between edifice shape and structure and the proportion of brittle to ductile material in the substrata or lower edifice. We study this link using refined sand cone analogue models standing on a brittle–ductile/sand–silicone substrata. Two scenarios have been investigated, the first mainly represents oceanic volcanoes with a ductile layer within the edifice (type I), where there is an outer ductile free surface. The second represents most continental volcanoes that have ductile substrata (type II). We apply the model results to natural examples and develop quantitative relationships between slope, brittle–ductile ratio fault density, spreading rate and structural style. Displacement fields calculated from stereophotogrammetry show significant differences between different slope models. We find that more faults are produced when the cone is initially steeper, or when the brittle substratum is thinner. However, the effect of the brittle layer dominates over that of slope. The strike–slip movements are found to be an essential feature in the spreading mechanism and the gräben are in fact transtensional features. Strike–slip and graben faults make a conjugate flower pattern. The structures produced are well-organised for type II edifices, but they are poorly organised for type I models. Type I models represent good analogues for oceanic volcanoes that are commonly affected by large slumps bounded by an extensional zone and lack of well-formed sector gräben. The well-observed connection between oceanic volcano rifts and large landslide-slumps is confirmed to be a consequence of spreading.     

The Karymskii Volcanic Center: Volcanic rock geochemistry

This paper is concerned with the petrology and geochemistry of rocks found in the Karymskii Volcanic Center (KVC), which is the largest volcanic center in the Eastern volcanic belt of Kamchatka. The KVC has been built in a rhythmic manner since the Late Pliocene, forming successive differentiated rock complexes. The pattern of variation for major and minor elements in the KVC volcanic rocks can be explained by the fractionation of mineral phases from the parent melt. The process involved enrichment of the residual melts with alkalis and lithophile elements (Rb, Ba, Sr, Pb, Th, U, REE), as well as depletion in coherent elements (Ni, Cr, Sc, Ti). A geochemical study of the KVC volcanic rocks shows that these are typical island arc formations. The relationships between incompatible elements suggest a two-component magma generation system: a depleted mantle source (N-MORB) and suprasubduction fluids (an island arc component). The melt may have been contaminated by a metasomatically altered substratum in the top of the intermediate chamber with added crystalline cumulus phases (and melts) of the earlier magma generation phases in the KVC.     

火山灾害

无论是靠近还是远离火山的地方都会遭受到火山活动带来的灾害 ,火山灾害大多是由火山喷发直接造成 ,也有一些是火山平静时产生的。火山喷发的气体、火山泥流 ,火山引起的山崩 ,火山熔岩流 ,火山碎屑流和火山灰都会造成人类生命财产的损失。例如 ,1980年美国华盛顿州的圣海伦斯山的火山泥流、山崩、火山碎屑流和火山灰 ,1989年至 1990年阿拉斯加多面堡头山的火山泥流 ,196 0年、1986年和 1990年夏威夷 kilanea火山喷出的气体和熔岩流 ;195 0年、1984年 ,冒纳罗亚火山溶岩流 ;哥伦比亚内华达德1985年的火山泥流 ;Hulla火山 1994年的火山泥流…     

基于地震属性各向异性的火山机构识别技术

本文通过对地震资料的分方位处理,分别提取各方位的地震属性,筛选出最具代表性的地震属性,通过属性方位椭圆拟合,求取该属性椭圆的"扁率",用椭圆"扁率"来表征储层的各向异性,并在此基础上识别火山机构.本文提出了基于地震属性各向异性的火山机构识别方法,利用叠前地震资料分方位提取地震属性,并对方位地震属性值进行椭圆拟合,利用椭圆扁率来表征各向异性的大小,并基于此来识别火山机构.本文对方法的流程进行了详细阐述,对方法的适用条件作了简要的说明,并用实际地震资料进行了效果检验,对检验结果进行了对比分析,取得了较好的效果.     

火山地震监测在火山喷发预测中的应用

火山地震学是火山监测的一种重要方法,同时也是预测火山喷发最有效的方法。本文首先回顾了火山地震监测的历史,分析汇总了火山地震的类型和特征,并介绍了各类地震的形成机理。然后,对近年来发展起来的火山地震学方法进行了简要介绍,如地震活动性分析、实时振幅比测量、地震波速度变化和重复地震等,同时列举了具体的应用实例。最后,介绍了火山地震学方法在中国大陆火山监测中的应用。     

The characteristics of magma reservoir failure beneath a volcanic edifice

Eruptions fed from subsurface reservoirs commonly construct volcanic edifices at the surface, and the growth of an edifice will in turn modify the subsurface stress state that dictates the conditions under which subsequent rupture of the inflating reservoir can occur. We re-examine this problem using axisymmetric finite element models of ellipsoidal reservoirs beneath conical edifices, explicitly incorporating factors (e.g., full gravitational loading conditions, an elastic edifice instead of a surface load, reservoir pressures sufficient to induce tensile rupture) that compromise previous solutions to illustrate why variations in rupture behavior can occur. Relative to half-space model results, the presence of an edifice generally rotates rupture toward the crest of a spherical reservoir, with increasing flank slope (for an edifice of constant volume) and larger edifices (or greater reservoir scaled depths) normally serving to enhance this trend. When non-spherical reservoirs are considered, the presence of an edifice amplifies previously identified half-space failure characteristics, shifting rupture to the crest more rapidly for prolate reservoirs while forcing rupture closer to the midpoint of oblate reservoirs. Rupture is always observed to occur in the σ_t orientation, and depending on where initial failure occurs rupture favors the initial emplacement of either lateral sills, circumferential intrusions or vertically ascending dikes. Ultimately, integration of our numerical model results with other information, for instance the sequence of intrusion/eruption events observed at a given volcano, can provide useful new insight into how a volcano's subsurface magma plumbing system evolved. We demonstrate this process through application of our model to Summer Coon, a well-studied stratocone on Earth, and Ilithyia Mons, a large conical shield volcano on Venus.     

Caldera formation by magma withdrawal from a reservoir beneath a volcanic edifice

Caldera formation has been explained by magma withdrawal from a crustal reservoir, but little is known about the conditions that lead to the critical reservoir pressure for collapse. During an eruption, the reservoir pressure is constrained to lie within a finite range: it cannot exceed the threshold value for eruption, and cannot decrease below another threshold value such that feeder dykes get shut by the confining pressure, which stops the eruption. For caldera collapse to occur, the critical reservoir pressure for roof failure must therefore be within this operating range. We use an analytical elastic model to evaluate the changes of reservoir pressure that are required for failure of roof rocks above the reservoir with and without a volcanic edifice at Earth's surface. With no edifice at Earth's surface, faulting in the roof region can only occur in the initial phase of reservoir inflation and affects a very small part of the focal area. Such conditions do not allow caldera collapse. With a volcanic edifice, large tensile stresses develop in the roof region, whose magnitude increase as the reservoir deflates during an eruption. The edifice size must exceed a threshold value for failure of the roof region before the end of eruption. The largest tensile stresses are reached at Earth's surface, indicating that faulting starts there. Failure affects an area whose horizontal dimensions depend on edifice and chamber dimensions. For small and deep reservoirs, failure conditions cannot be achieved even if the edifice is very large. Quantitative predictions are consistent with observations on a number of volcanoes.     

Volcanic stratigraphy of large-volume silicic pyroclastic eruptions during Oligocene Afro-Arabian flood volcanism in Yemen

A new stratigraphy for bimodal Oligocene flood volcanism that forms the volcanic plateau of northern Yemen is presented based on detailed field observations, petrography and geochemical correlations. The >1 km thick volcanic pile is divided into three phases of volcanism: a main basaltic stage (31 to 29.7 Ma), a main silicic stage (29.7 to 29.5 Ma), and a stage of upper bimodal volcanism (29.5 to 27.7 Ma). Eight large-volume silicic pyroclastic eruptive units are traceable throughout northern Yemen, and some units can be correlated with silicic eruptive units in the Ethiopian Traps and to tephra layers in the Indian Ocean. The silicic units comprise pyroclastic density current and fall deposits and a caldera-collapse breccia, and they display textures that unequivocally identify them as primary pyroclastic deposits: basal vitrophyres, eutaxitic fabrics, glass shards, vitroclastic ash matrices and accretionary lapilli. Individual pyroclastic eruptions have preserved on-land volumes of up to ∼850 km³. The largest units have associated co-ignimbrite plume ash fall deposits with dispersal areas >1×10⁷ km² and estimated maximum total volumes of up to 5,000 km³, which provide accurate and precisely dated marker horizons that can be used to link litho-, bio- and magnetostratigraphy studies. There is a marked change in eruption style of silicic units with time, from initial large-volume explosive pyroclastic eruptions producing ignimbrites and near-globally distributed tuffs, to smaller volume (<50 km³) mixed effusive-explosive eruptions emplacing silicic lavas intercalated with tuffs and ignimbrites. Although eruption volumes decrease by an order of magnitude from the first stage to the last, eruption intervals within each phase remain broadly similar. These changes may reflect the initiation of continental rifting and the transition from pre-break-up thick, stable crust supporting large-volume magma chambers, to syn-rift actively thinning crust hosting small-volume magma chambers.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at     

徐家围子断陷火山机构叠置关系解析及其数字化模型参数建立

随着庆深气田勘探开发工作的不断深入,揭示出火山岩气藏以孤立火山机构控藏的特征,火山岩地层的非均质性特征非常明显,为提高火山岩气藏的综合研究程度,实现认识上的飞跃.在松辽盆地北部徐家围子断陷密井网-三维地震工区,开展了地质先验模型约束下的地震火山机构解剖.识别出层状、穹窿和漏斗形三种火山机构;它们的叠置方式有串珠、上叠和镶嵌式三种.火山机构类型及其叠置方式均受控于断裂系统.在走滑型深大断裂带中,火山机构以层状为主.在深大断裂的两侧,靠近断陷的边部以熔岩穹隆火山机构为主;而在两套火山层序发育中心区域以漏斗形塌陷火山机构为主.火山机构沿走滑型断裂构造线方向呈串珠状排列,在断裂交叉点上以镶嵌式为主,在断裂转折点上以上叠式为主.区域沉积夹层和与之可对比的不同源火山岩界面是划分火山岩期次重要的标志,在本区两套火山岩层序中分别识别出两期重要的火山机构建造.火山作用的纵横向多期叠置的地质特征决定了火山岩地层的非均质性.为实现火山机构模型的数字化建模和数值模拟,设计了具有两期叠置的复合火山机构模型.利用钻井和取芯资料,建立了不同岩性的声学特征充填参数.     

Messenger: Volcanic Mercury

Mercury, while resembling the Moon, has much more volcanism apparent at the surface, and a rich collection of species in the plasma of its magnetosphere, according to first results from NASA's Messenger mission. And there's a mystery, too: there appears to be much less iron in these rocks than expected.     

Modelling of colloidal particle and heavy metal transfer behaviours during seawater intrusion and refreshing processes

The proper management of coastal aquifers commonly requires an understanding of regional mass flow and complete seawater–freshwater circulation. In this study, time series observations of seawater intrusion and refreshing were conducted using a column experiment based on natural flow conditions in coastal groundwater and a sampled medium from a coastal sandy aquifer without chemical treatment. Ranges of hydrodynamic and hydrochemical variables were tested and analysed. The results showed that the zeta potential of suspended colloids in aqueous solution in an aquifer polluted with 0.5 g/kg of heavy metals exhibited an isoelectric point for pH values ranging from 5.70 to 6.07 when freshwater or seawater completely occupied the aquifer pores, which is representative of natural hydrochemical conditions. In this scenario, a high background concentration of heavy metals induced colloidal immobilization. Otherwise, seawater–freshwater circulation enabled colloid mobilization due to ionic strength and pH fluctuations. The migration of multiple heavy metals occurred at a characteristic time of approximately 1 pore volume after each intrusion stage began and when the peak rate of colloid release was reached. At these times, the colloid behaviour determined the quantity and pathway of heavy metal transport. On the basis of the influences of seawater and freshwater interactions, the quantity of mobilized particles generally decreased and was uniformly distributed in each fraction due to particle loss and decreased porous connectivity. We speculate that the decrease in the total surface area of the migratory colloids may cause colloid‐associated heavy metal transport to decrease. The experimental results provide a useful basis for testing coastal groundwater flow and mass transport models because these phenomena require full characterization to precisely evaluate the associated fluxes from the field scale to the microscopic dimension.     

Plinian activity during the early eruptive history of the Sabatini Volcanic District, Central Italy

The early activity of the Sabatini Volcanic District (SVD; central Italy) was characterised by highly explosive eruptions that produced widespread subplinian and plinian fall deposits. In this study, four major eruptive units—informally named as units A, B, C and D—were recognised in the 514–449 ka age interval. In particular, unit D was emplaced during the early phase of the 449 ka Tufo Rosso a Scorie Nere pyroclastic flow-forming eruption, the most important event in the whole SVD activity history. Estimates of relevant eruptive parameters indicate tephra fall volumes up to 4 km³ for individual units, peak eruption column heights in the range of 14–29 km and corresponding mass eruption rates of 7.8×10⁶–1.3×10⁸ kg/s. Isopach and isopleth maps of fallout deposits—as well as the distribution of the proximal lag-breccia of the Tufo Rosso a Scorie Nere—consistently indicate a common vent area, which does not correspond to any volcanic centre identified up to now in the SVD. This was located along NE–SW-trending tectonic lineaments that also controlled the location of the other major volcanic centres of the SVD. The characterisation by means of field aspects, grain size, componentry and density and chemical composition of juvenile clasts, renders the studied fall deposits as valuable stratigraphic markers for the SVD and well beyond it. In fact, their wide areal dispersals toward the E and SE may allow correlations on a regional scale for the Quaternary successions of intermountain basins of the Central Apennine and the Adriatic Sea basin successions. Finally, the correct identification of distal tephra from plinian and co-ignimbrite plumes and their attribution to specific explosive eruptions of the SVD and the other volcanic districts of the Roman Province—rather than to local intra-Apennine centres—provides crucial implications for geodynamic reconstructions.     

Volcanic tremor during eruptions: Temporal characteristics,scaling and constraints on conduit size and processes

We investigated characteristics of eruption tremor observed for 24 eruptions at 18 volcanoes based on published reports. In particular, we computed reduced displacements (D_R) to normalize the data and examined tremor time histories. We observed: (a) maximum D_R is approximately proportional to the square root of the cross sectional area of the vent, however, with lower than expected slope; (b) about one half of the cases show approximately exponential increases in D_R at the beginnings of eruptions, on a scale of minutes to hours; (c) one half of the cases show a sustained maximum level of tremor; (d) more than 90% of the cases show approximately exponential decay at the ends of eruptions, also on a scale of minutes to hours; and (e) exponential increases, if they occur, are commonly associated with the first large stage of eruptions. We estimate the radii of the vents using several methods and reconcile the topographic estimates, which are systematically too large, with those obtained from D_R itself and theoretical considerations. We compare scaling of tremor D_R with that for explosions and find that explosions have large absolute pressures and scale with vent radius squared, whereas tremor consists of pressure fluctuations that have lower amplitudes than the absolute pressure of explosions, and the scaling is different. We explore several methods to determine the appropriate scaling. This characteristic helps us to distinguish the type of eruptions: explosive (Vulcanian or Strombolian) eruptions versus sustained or continuous ash (e.g. Plinian) eruptions. Average eruption discharge, estimated from the total volume of tephra and the total duration of eruption tremor, is well correlated with peak discharge calculated from cross sectional area of the vent and velocity of volcanic ejecta. These results suggest similar scaling between different eruption types and the overall usefulness of monitoring tremor for evaluating volcanic activity.