海洋生物对二甲基硫生产的控制作用研究

二甲基硫(DMS)是参与全球硫循环的最主要的海洋生源硫化物,对全球气候变化和环境酸化产生重要影响.海洋中DMS的产生是一个极为复杂的生物学和生态学过程,主要涉及的生物过程包括浮游植物病毒感染、浮游动物摄食和DMSP裂解酶的活动.根据海洋生物活动在二甲基硫的全球生物地球化学循环中所起着的重要作用,作者综述了国际海洋科学工作者十几年来在DMS生物生产过程研究方面的进展.     

南海4种珊瑚附生可培养真菌多样性分析

本研究利用从南海采集的4种珊瑚分离附生真菌,并通过菌株的分类鉴定及系统发育分析获得珊瑚附生可培养真菌的多样性信息.选用酵母麦芽糖琼脂培养基(YM)、马铃薯葡萄糖琼脂培养基(PDA)、马丁氏培养基(Martin)、察氏琼脂培养基(CDA)和孟加拉红培养基(RBM)等5种培养基,采用平板涂布法培养分离附生真菌,基于ITS-rRNA基因序列对真菌菌株进行鉴定和系统发育分析.从4种珊瑚上共分离获得10个属的120株真菌,分别是:青霉属(Penicillum)56株、曲霉属(Aspergillus)25株、枝顶孢属(Acremonium)2株、枝孢属(Cladosporium)5株、毕赤酵母属(Meyerozyma)14株、隔孢伏革属(Peniophora)2株、拟茎点霉属(Phomopsis)1株、裂褶菌属(Schizophyllum)1株、梗孢酵母属(Sterigmatomyces)13株、篮状菌属(Talaromyces)1株.通过对不同珊瑚品种分离获得的附生真菌的比较,发现小叶鹿角珊瑚(Acropora microphthalma)和花鹿角珊瑚(Acropora floride)上分离到的菌株多样性最高,包含6属10种.进一步的分析发现不同珊瑚样品上真菌种类分布有较大差异,隔孢伏革属和裂褶菌属真菌均分离自小叶鹿角珊瑚,梗孢酵母属和篮状菌属均分离自角孔珊瑚(Goniopora sp.),扁脑珊瑚(Platygyra sp.)上则分离到拟茎点霉属.同时还发现不同培养基分离真菌的能力不同,YM培养基分离的菌株最多,CDA培养基分离真菌的多样性最多.以上的研究结果表明,南海珊瑚上存在大量且丰富的真菌资源,可以为后续生物活性物质的开发利用提供良好的菌种资源.     

海洋中β-二甲基巯基丙酸内盐降解过程的研究进展

二甲基硫(DMS)是海水中一种最重要的、含量最丰富的还原态挥发性生源有机硫化物,前体β-二甲基巯基丙酸内盐(DMSP)的降解过程受各种因素影响。其中主要包括温度、DMSP的浓度、氧气、盐度、酸度、颗粒粒度、藻类生长期、季节变化、氧化压力、抑制剂等。它们均与DMSP降解速率呈一定的函数关系,并对DMSP的降解产物产生影响。藻类是DMSP的主要来源,因此着重讨论了温度、盐度、酸度等对不同浮游植物细胞内DMSP与DMS生物生产和转化过程的影响。结合海洋硫循环的研究现状和海洋化学发展的趋势,探究了用颗粒态DMSP与Chla的比率来量化碳和硫通量的方法及DMSP裂解酶活性的检验技术。大气中CO2压力持续增加导致的海洋酸化对藻类中DMSP降解过程的影响也是进一步研究的重点。     

海洋浮游生态系统中D MS P的来源及在食物链中的传递和转化研究进展

β-二甲基巯基丙酸内盐(DMSP)是一种在海洋中普遍存在的重要生源有机硫化物,其降解产物二甲基硫(DMS)挥发到大气中会形成云凝结核,进而对大气温度产生负反馈效应。DMSP主要由浮游植物和部分细菌生物合成,在浮游食物链和微食物环中进行传递和转化,并进一步通过食物网进入更高营养级。浮游生物是驱动全球碳、硫循环的关键环节,在DMSP生物地球化学循环中的作用越来越受到人们的重视。本文针对DMSP的来源、归宿及在浮游食物链中的传递和转移等方面进行综述,介绍了浮游食物链和微食物环在DMSP传递、转化中的作用。DMSP在海洋食物链中仍有不少传递和降解途径为研究空白,今后应针对目前的研究不足深入开展DMSP的产生、传递和转化机制研究,进一步完善DMSP的生物地球化学循环机制。     

海洋中DMSP的研究进展

DMSP(dimethylsulfoniopropionate，β-二甲基巯基丙酸内盐)作为DMS(dimethylsulfide,二甲基硫)的前体，是1种重要的生源硫化物。根据其在海洋生态系统和生物地球化学循环中所起着的重要作用，作者综述了国内外海洋科学工作者十几年来在EMSP研究方面的进展。     

海水中二甲基硫的光化学氧化研究

二甲基硫(DMS)是海洋中最重要的挥发性生源硫化物,其在大气中的氧化产物会对全球气候变化和酸雨的形成产生重要影响。海水中DMS的光化学氧化,作为一个重要的去除途径,是控制海水中DMS浓度的重要因素。这个复杂的动态过程会受到光照、深度、海水中的溶解无机和有机物这些物理、化学因素的影响。根据光化学降解在DMS的全球生物地球化学循环中的重要作用,作者综述了国际海洋科学工作者近20年来在海水中DMS光化学研究方面的最新进展。     

硫代甜菜碱(DMSP)对大气环境的影响及其对水产动物营养的促进作用

一种二甲基硫化合物硫代甜菜碱（DMSP）成为环境科学和水产科学共同关注的热点之一。研究表明，DMSP是海洋植物产生的渗透调节物质，大量存在于海藻和盐生高等植物体内。含有DMSP的生物体死亡之后，DMSP被海洋细菌的二甲硫醚生成酶降解，生成二甲硫醚（DMS）和丙烯酸。DMS从海洋水面逾出，进入大气形成酸雨；由于DMS能形成云，所以有降低温室效应的作用。DMSP本身则对哺乳动物、禽类及水产动物（鱼和虾）的营养代谢有促进作用。酶学研究表明，动物肝脏中的两种硫甲基转移酶能把DMSP分子中硫原子上的甲基转换出来，提供给机体代谢所需。作为海洋植物渗透调节物质的主要成分，DMSP来源于植物体内的蛋氨酸。研究DMSP的生成变化规律，对进一步了解海洋气候和开发使用新的水产动物饲料添加剂有重要价值。     

塔玛亚历山大藻生成二甲基硫和二甲基硫丙酸的实验研究

主要研究在封闭培养条件下塔玛亚历山大藻（Alexandrium tamarense)生长周期内藻体细胞的二甲基硫丙酸（DMSP（）含量以及释放至水体的二甲基硫（DMS）含量，结果表明：（1）塔玛亚历山大藻藻体细胞DMSP含量变化与该藻细胞数量动态变化趋势相一致，在生长周期的第7天最高值；（2）藻体细胞的DMSP含量以及释放至水体的DMS含量均与藻体细胞数量有显著相关；（3）单位细胞DMSP生成量的变化与DMS释放量变化呈现相反的趋势，在DMS释放量最高时，单位细胞DMSP生成量最低。     

不同氮磷比对球形棕囊藻释放含硫化合物及DMSP降解途径的影响

本文探讨了球形棕囊藻(Phaeocystis globosa)在不同氮磷比条件下各生长时期内释放到培养液中二甲巯基丙酸内盐(DMSP)、二甲基硫(DMS)和丙烯酸(AA)等含硫化合物浓度及DMSP降解途径的影响,所设置氮磷比为4:1、16:1、40:1和80:1.结果表明,球形棕囊藻的DIC吸收速率在80:1组出现最大...     

环境因子对浒苔生长及生源硫释放的影响

近年来,我国黄海海域大规模暴发的绿潮现象对海洋生态环境和海水中的物质迁移转化产生了重要影响。而浒苔作为绿潮暴发过程中的主要藻类,是释放二甲基硫(DMS)的优势藻类,其对海水中硫酸盐吸收转化及生源硫释放发挥着重要作用。本文通过实验室培养探讨了温度、盐度及不同形态氮营养盐对浒苔生长及释放生源硫化物的影响。结果表明,在实验范围内(盐度为25—35,温度为20—25°C),盐度对浒苔生长无明显影响,但盐度增加会促进β-二甲基巯基丙酸内酯(DMSP)的合成。在温度为20°C盐度为35时,DMSP释放达到最大值。温度增加能够促进浒苔的增长,在培养第5天,25°C下浒苔湿重比20°C增加了25%左右。培养液中的DMS含量为20nmol/L左右,约是正常黄海水的4倍,DMSP的浓度更是高于正常海水的数十倍。增加无机氮浓度会促进浒苔的生长及DMS和DMSP的释放,相比之下,NH4+-N比NO3–-N更易被浒苔吸收利用,添加两种氮源组DMS和DMSP的最高含量均比空白组高60%和30%左右。DMS/DMSP的值在10%以内变化,培养过程中DMSP表观降解比AA(丙烯酸)/(AA+DMSP)总体上低于40%。     

New and important roles for DMSP in marine microbial communities

The algal osmolyte dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) is recognised as the major precursor of marine dimethylsulfide (DMS), a volatile sulfur compound that affects atmospheric chemistry and global climate. Recent studies, using ³⁵S-DMSP tracer techniques, suggest that DMSP may play additional very important roles in the microbial ecology and biogeochemistry of the surface ocean. DMSP may serve as an intracellular osmolyte in bacteria that take up phytoplankton-derived DMSP from seawater. In addition, DMSP appears to support from 1 to 13% of the bacterial carbon demand in surface waters, making it one of the most significant single substrates for bacterioplankton so far identified. Furthermore, the sulfur from DMSP is efficiently incorporated into bacterial proteins (mostly into methionine) and DMSP appears to be a major source of sulfur for marine bacterioplankton. Assimilatory metabolism of DMSP is via methanethiol (MeSH) that is produced by a demethylation/demethiolation pathway which dominates DMSP degradation in situ. Based on the linkage between assimilatory metabolism of DMSP and bacterial growth, we offer a hypothesis whereby DMSP availability to bacteria controls the production of DMS by the competing DMSP lyase pathway. Also linked with the assimilatory metabolism of DMSP is the production of excess MeSH which, if not assimilated into protein, reacts to form dissolved non-volatile compounds. These include sulfate and DOM–metal–MeSH complexes, both of which represent major short-term end-products of DMSP degradation. Because production rates of MeSH in seawater are high (3–90 nM d⁻¹), reaction of MeSH with trace metals could affect metal availability and chemistry in seawater. Overall, results of recent studies provide evidence that DMSP plays important roles in the carbon, sulfur and perhaps metal and DOM cycles in marine microbial communities. These findings, coupled with the fact that the small fraction of DMSP converted to DMS may influence atmospheric chemistry and climate dynamics, draws attention to DMSP as a molecule of central importance to marine biogeochemical and ecological processes.     

Determinations of dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) lyase activity using headspace analysis of dimethylsulphide (DMS)

The osmolyte dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) can be enzymatically cleaved to dimethylsulphide (DMS), acrylate and a proton. The enzyme involved in this reaction is dimethylpropiothetin dethiomethylase (DMSP lyase; enzyme classification number 4.4.1.3.). Although the importance of this reaction for the global sulphur cycle, the influence of DMS on atmospheric acidity and the possible effect on climate regulation have been widely recognised, our knowledge of DMSP lyases is limited to just a few studies. Activity measurements of DMSP lyases offer an important step towards a better understanding of the conditions under which DMS is produced. In the available published data somewhat similar methods have been used before, but a critical examination of the method limitations has not been reported. To encourage further research on this enzyme, we suggest and detail two protocols for measurements of DMSP lyase activity: An in vitro assay for crude cell extracts or purified enzyme and an in vivo method for whole cells, which we recently started to use. After addition of DMSP, samples incubated in a gas tight vial may produce DMS from enzymatic cleavage under suitable conditions, and a DMS production rate can be estimated from time-series measurements of DMS in the headspace of the vial. Headspace analysis of DMS is a useful and rapid technique to estimate and compare DMSP lyase activities from different sources. The relative rates of DMS production in the liquid and of the gas transfer between liquid and headspace, determine the rate of DMS production measured via headspace analysis. If DMS production in the liquid is higher than the rate of transfer, headspace measurements will not reflect the actual amount of DMS produced in the liquid. In this case, extracts have to be diluted to a level that ensures linearity between dilution factor and reduction of enzyme activity. Additionally, incubation volumes and vials should be selected to provide a high surface-to-volume ratio to ensure maximum flux of DMS from the aqueous phase into the headspace. The methods can be adapted to further investigate species- and strain-specific activities, biogeographical distribution, cellular location and biochemical properties of various DMSP lyases.     

海洋中二甲基硫的生物生产与消费过程

DMS是海洋中最主要的挥发性有机硫化物,对全球气候变化和环境酸化产生重要影响。DMS的生物生产与消耗主要发生在海洋真光层。生物的生产与消耗被认为是海洋中DMS的主要来源和去除途径。海洋中DMS的生物生产和消耗是密切相关的,两者的速率基本保持平衡。目前,有关DMS生物生产与消费速率的测定方法有放射性同位素示踪和加抑制剂2种,后者颇受青睐,不过有关抑制机理还需进一步的研究。     

A model of dimethylsulfide dynamics for the subtropical North Atlantic

Dimethylsulfide (DMS) is a volatile sulfur compound produced by the marine biota. The flux of DMS to the atmosphere may act on climate via aerosol formation. It is therefore important to improve our understanding of the processes that regulate sea surface DMS concentrations for eventual inclusion into climate models. In order to simulate the dynamics of DMS concentrations in the mixed layer, a model of DMS production was developed and calibrated against a 1 year time-series of DMS and DMSP (dissolved and particulate) data collected in the Sargasso Sea at Hydrostation ‘S’. The model reproduces the observed divergence between the seasonal cycles of particulate DMSP, the DMS precursor produced by algae, and DMS produced through the microbial loop from the cleavage of dissolved DMSP. DMSP_p (particulate) reaches its maximum in the spring whereas DMSP_d (dissolved) and DMS reach maximum concentrations in summer. Several parameters had to vary seasonally and with depth in order to reproduce the data, pointing out the importance of physiological and structural changes in the plankton food web. These parameters include the intracellular S(DMSp):N ratio, the C:Chl ratio and the sinking rates of phytoplankton and detritus. For the Sargasso Sea, variations in the solar zenithal angle, which co-vary with the seasonal variations in the depth of the mixed layer, proved to be a convenient signal to drive the seasonal variation in the structure and dynamics of the plankton. Variations of the temperature and photosynthetically active radiation also help to reproduce the short-term variability of the annual S cycle. Results from a sensitivity analysis show that variations in DMSP_p are dependent mostly on parameters controlling phytoplankton biomass, whereas DMS is dependent mostly on variables controlling phytoplankton productivity.     

Experimental studies on dimethylsulfide (DMS) and dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) production by four marine microalgae

The production of dimethylsulfide (DMS) and dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) by marine microalgae was investigated to elucidate more on the role of marine phytoplankton in ocean-atmosphere interactions in the global biogeochemical sulfur cycle.Axenic laboratory cultures of four marine microalgae–Isochrysis galbana 8701,Pavlova viridis,Platymonas sp.and Chlorella were tested for DMSP production and conversion into DMS.Among these four microalgae,Isochrysis galbana 8701 and Pavlova viridis are two species of Haptophyta,while Chlorella and Platymonas sp.belong to Chlorophyta.The results demonstrate that the four algae can produce various amounts of DMS(P),and their DMS(P) production was species specific.With similar cell size,more DMS was released by Haptophyta than that by Chlorophyta.DMS and dissolved DMSP (DMSPd) concentrations in algal cultures varied significantly during their life cycles.The highest release of DMS appeared in the senescent period for all the four algae.Variations in DMSP concentrations were in strong compliance with variations in algal cell densities during the growing period.A highly significant correlation was observed between the DMS and DMSPd concentrations in algal cultures,and there was a time lag for the variation trend of the DMS concentrations as compared with that of the DMSPd.The consistency of variation patterns of DMS and DMSPd implies that the DMSPd produced by phytoplankton cells has a marked effect on the production of DMS.In the present study,the authors’ results specify the significant contribution of the marine phytoplankton to DMS(P) production and the importance of biological control of DMS concentrations in oceanic water.     

Spatial variations of dimethylsulfide and dimethylsulfoniopropionate in the surface microlayer and in the subsurface waters of the South China Sea during springtime

Spatial variations in dimethylsulfide (DMS) and dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) were surveyed in the surface microlayer and in the subsurface waters of the low productivity South China Sea in May 2005. Overall, average subsurface water concentrations of DMS and DMSP of dissolved (DMSPd) and particulate (DMSPp) fractions were 1.74 (1.00-2.50), 3.92 (2.21-6.54) and 6.06 (3.40-8.68) nM, respectively. No enrichment in DMS and DMSPp was observed in the microlayer. In contrast, the microlayer showed a DMSPd enrichment, with an average enrichment factor (EF, defined as the ratio of the microlayer concentration to subsurface water concentration) of 1.40. In the study area, none of the sulfur components were correlated with chlorophyll a. An important finding in this study was that DMS, DMSP and chlorophyll a concentrations in the surface microlayer were respectively correlated with those in the subsurface water, suggesting a close linkage between these two water bodies. The ratios of DMS:Chl-a and DMSPp:Chl-a showed a gradually increasing trend from North to South. This might be due to changes in the proportion of DMSP producers in the phytoplankton community with the increased surface seawater temperature. A clear diurnal variation in the DMS and DMSP concentrations was observed at an anchor station with the highest concentrations appearing during the day and the lowest concentrations during the night. The higher DMS and DMSP concentrations during daytime might be attributed to the light-induced increase in both algal synthesis and exudation of DMSP and biological production of DMS. The mean flux of DMS from the investigated area to the atmosphere was estimated to be 2.06 micromo lm(-2)d(-1). This low DMS emission flux, together with the low DMS surface concentrations was attributed to the low productivity in this sea.     

Factors determining the vertical profile of dimethylsulfide in the Sargasso Sea during summer

The major source of reduced sulfur in the remote marine atmosphere is the biogenic compound dimethylsulfide (DMS), which is ubiquitous in the world's oceans and released through food web interactions. Relevant fluxes and concentrations of DMS, its phytoplankton-produced precursor, dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) and related parameters were measured during an intensive Lagrangian field study in two mesoscale eddies in the Sargasso Sea during July–August 2004, a period characterized by high mixed-layer DMS and low chlorophyll—the so-called ‘DMS summer paradox’. We used a 1-D vertically variable DMS production model forced with output from a 1-D vertical mixing model to evaluate the extent to which the simulated vertical structure in DMS and DMSP was consistent with changes expected from field-determined rate measurements of individual processes, such as photolysis, microbial DMS and dissolved DMSP turnover, and air–sea gas exchange. Model numerical experiments and related parametric sensitivity analyses suggested that the vertical structure of the DMS profile in the upper 60 m was determined mainly by the interplay of the two depth-variable processes—vertical mixing and photolysis—and less by biological consumption of DMS. A key finding from the model calibration was the need to increase the DMS(P) algal exudation rate constant, which includes the effects of cell rupture due to grazing and cell lysis, to significantly higher values than previously used in other regions. This was consistent with the small algal cell size and therefore high surface area-to-volume ratio of the dominant DMSP-producing group—the picoeukaryotes.     

DMSP and DMS dynamics and microzooplankton grazing in the Labrador Sea: application of the dilution technique

We adapted the dilution technique to study microzooplankton grazing of algal dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) vs. Chl a, and to estimate the impact of microzooplankton grazing on dimethyl sulfide (DMS) production in the Labrador Sea. Phytoplankton numbers were dominated by autotrophic nanoflagellates in the Labrador basin, but diatoms and colonial Phaeocystis pouchetii contributed significantly to phytomass at several high chlorophyll stations and on the Newfoundland and Greenland shelfs. Throughout the region, growth of algal Chl a and DMSP was generally high (0.2–1 d⁻¹), but grazing rates were lower and more variable, characteristic of the early spring bloom period. Production and consumption of Chl a vs. DMSP followed no clear pattern, and sometimes diverged greatly, likely because of their differing distributions among algal prey taxa and size class. In several experiments where Phaeocystis was abundant, we observed DMS production proportional to grazing rate, and we found clear evidence of DMS production by this haptophyte following physical stress such as sparging or filtration. It is possible that grazing-activated DMSP cleavage by Phaeocystis contributes to grazer deterrence: protozoa and copepods apparently avoided healthy colonies (as judged by relative growth and grazing rates of Chl a and DMSP), and grazing of Phaeocystis was significant only at one station where cells were in poor condition. Although we hoped to examine selective grazing on or against DMSP-containing algal prey, the dilution technique cannot differentiate selective ingestion and varying digestion rates of Chl a and DMSP. We also found that the dilution method alone was poorly suited for assessing the impact of grazing on dissolved sulfur pools, because of rapid microbial consumption and the artifactual release of DMSP and DMS during filtration. Measuring and understanding the many processes affecting organosulfur cycling by the microbial food web in natural populations remain a technical challenge that will likely require a combination of techniques to address.