The relationship between rock glacier and contributing area parameters in the Front Range of Colorado

Rock glaciers are an end unit of the coarse debris system that links frost weathering and rockfall to debris transport in mountainous environments. By examining topographic and climatic controls on creep, a better understanding of rock glacier formation and evolution could be obtained. A series of statistical tests were run comparing contributing area parameters (width, length, area, slope, headwall height, etc.) and rock glacier variables (width, length, area, thickness, slope, creep and temperature) in the Front Range of Colorado. Results showed that rock glacier width had the strongest correlation with contributing area width due to an abundance of lobate rock glaciers (r = 0.78). Rock glacier area and contributing area size were also related (r = 0.74), but are also a function of talus production factors. Mean surface velocity appears to be better correlated with thickness (r = 0.58) and length (r = 0.62), rather than slope (r = 0.33). Mean annual air temperature had a stronger exponential relationship with maximum velocities (r = 0.76) compared to mean annual velocity (r = 0.60). Front Range rock glacier velocities tend to decrease with warming, suggesting that the volume of ice and debris, rates of shear in plastic layers, or melt water may have a greater influence on deformation. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Trend surface analysis as a special case of IRF-k kriging

This short note establishes the equivalence between trend surface analysis with polynomials of orderk and IRF-k (intrinsic random function of orderk) kriging with a nugget effect covariance model.     

Phosphorus in granitic rocks of Colombia

One hundred and three samples of granitic rock taken systematically from the Andean part of Colombia reveal that the observed variation in phosphorus content reflects the variation observed for the wholerock chemical composition. This relationship was established using a form of trend analysis termed COMTRENA and information-theory statistics.     

Chronology of glaciation and deglaciation during the Loch Lomond (Younger Dryas) Stade in the Scottish Highlands: implications of recalibrated 10Be exposure ages

Considerable uncertainty surrounds the timing of glacier advance and retreat during the Younger Dryas or Loch Lomond Stade (LLS) in the Scottish Highlands. Some studies favour ice advance until near the end of the stade (c. 11.7 ka), whereas others support the culmination of glacier advance in mid‐stade (c. 12.6–12.4 ka). Most published ¹⁰ Be exposure ages reported for boulders on moraines or deglacial sites post‐date the end of the LLS, and thus appear to favour the former view, but recalibration of 33 ¹⁰ Be ages using a locally derived ¹⁰ Be production rate and assuming rock surface erosion rates of zero to 1 mm ka^?1 produces exposure ages 130–980 years older than those originally reported. The recalibrated ages are filtered to exclude anomalous data, and then employed to generate aggregate probability density distributions for the timing of moraine deposition and deglaciation. The results suggest that the most probable age for the timing of the deposition of the sampled outermost moraines lies in the interval 12.4–12.1 ka or earlier. Deglacial ages obtained for sites inside Loch Lomond Stadial glacier limits imply that glaciers at some or all of the sampled sites were retreating prior to 12.1 ka. Use of aggregated data does not exclude the possibility of asynchronous glacier behaviour at different sites, but confirms that some glaciers reached their maximum limits and began to retreat several centuries before the rapid warming that terminated the LLS at 11.7–11.6 ka, consistent with the retrodictions of recent numerical modelling experiments and with geomorphological evidence for gradual oscillatory ice‐margin retreat under stadial conditions.     

近20年三江平原地表蒸散发时空特征及驱动因素分析

分析地表蒸散发时空变化规律及驱动因素,对促进区域水资源的科学分配、做好生态系统水源保护具有重要意义。本文基于MOD16蒸散发遥感数据产品,采用趋势分析及显著性检验法,深入分析了近20年三江平原地表蒸散量的时空变化特征,根据Penman-Monteith公式选取与地表蒸散量（ET）相关的驱动因子,分析各驱动因子对地表蒸散量变化的影响,并构建岭回归统计模型,分析研究地表蒸散量变化的主要驱动因子及其相对贡献率。结果表明：近20年三江平原地表蒸散发（ET）年际起伏特征明显,整体呈上升趋势;研究区内91.53%的地区ET呈增加趋势,且ET分布的地域差异逐年缩小;年内ET呈单峰型周期性变化,季节差异性明显;研究区坡度对ET有正向影响,高程和风速对ET有负向影响;气温、日照时数、降水量及NDVI与ET均呈正相关性,其中降水量与ET相关性最为显著;构建岭回归驱动分析模型的决定系数R²为0.823,能够有效解释各驱动因素与ET的关系。模型计算结果表明：降水量和植被覆盖度对三江平原地表蒸散量影响较大,是影响地表蒸散量变化的主要驱动力。     

趋势面分析在东欢坨井田构造研究中的应用

受区域构造及其演化过程的控制作用,造就了东欢坨矿区构造具有多期次、多性质、多方向、多级别和多序次的特点。选择东欢坨矿大苗庄组8煤层底板标高代表石炭—二叠系含煤地层的起伏变化规律,利用钻孔坐标构建了二维多项式趋势面数学模型。通过对8号煤层底板标高1-4次趋势面和偏差图的分析,提示了开滦矿区东欢坨井田的构造格局:煤层底板有自北东向南西由高到低的变化趋势;主体构造为北东—南西向,趋势图上呈现典型的"反S"型扭曲,且煤层底板等高线趋势面形态显示在走向NE、倾斜ES的单斜基础上,有近东西向构造叠加的格局。该研究还表明煤层底板标高趋势面偏差分析可反映构造形态细节,且随着趋势面偏差次数的增加,分区性更趋明显。     

趋势面分析在高原地区音频大地电磁测深中的应用

常规音频大地电磁法,如EH-4电磁成像系统,在资料处理时通常不能有效分辨部分异常区域。以青海海北某公路隧道勘探为例,研究趋势面分析法在音频大地电磁测深中的应用。结果表明：通过拟合趋势面方程,可获取研究区内任一位置的视电阻率值,在拟合度较高的情况下可对区外的视电阻率值进行预测与估计;野外观测数据通常受随机因素的影响,可通过趋势面分析法对随机噪声进行平滑滤波处理;剩余值反映了视电阻率异常特征,绘制剩余值等值线图可以在去除区域背景视电阻率值后对异常区域进行凸显。音频大地电磁探测成果与趋势面分析法结合能更充分地利用地质信息。     

Multiple regression with correlated independent variables

Multiple linear regression analysis may be used to describe the relation of one geologic variable to a number of other (independent) variables, and also may be used to fit a trend surface to geographically distributed variables. The leastsquares estimates of the regression coefficients differ unpredictably from the true coefficients if the independent variables are correlated. The estimates can be too large in absolute value, and may have the wrong sign. Also, the least-squares solution may be unstable in that replicate samples can give widely differing values of the regression coefficients. Ridgeregression analysis is a technique for removing the effect of correlations from the regression analysis. The procedure involves addition of a small constant K to the diagonal elements of the standardized covariance matrix. The estimates obtained are biased but have smaller sums of squared deviations between the coefficients and their estimates. The ridge trace, a plot of the coefficients versus K, helps determine the value of K that stabilizes the estimates. Correlations between geologic variables are common, and regression coefficients based on these data may be suspect. In trendsurface analysis, correlations between the geographic coordinates may differ widely, and extreme correlations may be introduced if higher order terms are used in the trend. Ridgeregression analysis serves to guide the geologist to a more reliable interpretation of the results of multiple regression if the independent variables are correlated.     

Boulder shapes and grain-size distributions of debris as indicators of transport paths through a glacier and till genesis

Debris transported by glacier is derived either supraglacially from nunataks and valley sides or from erosion of the subglacial bed. Debris produced above the glacier by fracturing of rock walls has a dominant coarse fraction with angular boulders. Subsequent englacial or supraglacial transport is relatively passive and little comminution occurs. Debris eroded from subglacial bedrock is initially transported in a basal zone of traction, where particles frequently come into contact with the glacier bed and are retarded by it so that large forces may be generated between particles and the bed and at interparticle contacts. The material introduced into this tractional zone may be subglacial bedrock which has undergone a crushing-plucking event and which has a dominant coarse fraction, or supraglacially derived material which finds its way to the glacier bed. These parent debris assemblages are further comminuted by failure in response to locally concentrated compressive stresses, and attrition at shearing interfaces. Boulders transported through the tractional zone will tend to be rounded and bear several directions of striation. Large boulders embedded in lodgement till will tend to be streamlined with striae parallel to glacier flow and with an abruptly truncated distal extremity, rather like a roche moutonnée. Textural and boulder shape characteristics can be used to help distinguish different types of till.     

Mineral variation in anorthositic, troctolitic, and adamellitic rocks of the Barth Island layered structure in the Nain anorthosite complex, Labrador

The Barth Island layered structure is an oval, 6 by 9 km body, consisting of rhythmically layered adamellitic rock in the center which grades outward through jotunite into troctolite. Farther outward the sequence repeats itself in reversed order, strongly reduced in magnitude and finer grained; the adamellitic zone is followed by jotunite which grades into coarse-grained leuconorite and into anorthosite of the Nain complex. The Barth Island structure, having an inverted conical base topped by a hemispherical depression, seems to represent a distorted sequence of rock layers with troctolite at the bottom, grading upward into adamellitic rocks which grade into anorthosite at the top. Trend-surface analysis demonstrates the regional variation of plagioclase and orthopyroxene compositions in the troctolite—adamellite sequence of the central part of the structure. The fits for the second- and third-degree surfaces are good and significant at the 99 percent level. The regression line for compositional variation in coexisting plagioclase and orthopyroxene in all analyzed rocks has a correlation coefficient of r² = 0.78. The difference between the trends in the troctolite—adamellite sequence and the anorthosite—adamellite sequence is insignificant. The regression curve for compositional variation in coexisting orthopyroxene and olivine has a correlation coefficient of r² = 0.98. The curve shows good correlation with the experimentally established partitioning curve of Medaris, which indicates that equilibrium conditions prevailed during formation of the olivine—ortho-pyroxene pairs. The results suggest that the troctolite—adamellite sequence and the anorthosite—adamellite sequence are products of fractional crystallization, possibly from the same parental magma.     

工程地质趋势面分析的智能方法及其应用

鉴于神经网络和遗传规划的自适应、自学习功能,将径向基函数神经网络方法与混合进化方法引入到趋势面分析当中,在一定程度上可以避免传统地质体数学模拟时需要事先选定未知模型类型的弊端,并通过它们特有的学习和进化机制,去寻求一个能较好地描述和解释地质体空间展布特征(趋势)的数学表达形式.通过实例研究,发现RBF神经网络方法拟合和外推插值的效果最好;多项式趋势面法和混合进化方法拟合效果相差不大,但后者的外推插值效果更好.     

高山冰川区大降水带的成因探讨

在中纬度高亚洲的高山冰川带,由于下垫面的温度场和湿度场与周围环境的差异,形成冷岛和高湿中心.其结果造成水平湍流加强,并影响内部场的湍流加剧,使冰川区成为湿岛和局地对流加强,形成多降水过程,增加降水量.当过境气流通过时,冰川区形成阻岛,气流活动加强,产生降水天气.这种作用使高山冰川带成为高降水带,并且山地越高,冰川面积越大,对于气流影响越强烈.其结果形成青藏高原外围区冰川分布广,降水量大,而内部降水少的格局.大降水带的成因主要归于冷下垫面和高湿度场的作用.     

Recent extreme slope failures in glacial environments: effects of thermal perturbation

This paper describes recent exceptional slope failures in high-mountain, glacial environments: the 2002 Kolka–Karmadon rock–ice avalanche in the Caucasus, a series of ice–rock avalanches on Iliamna Volcano, Alaska, the 2005 Mt. Steller rock–ice avalanche in Alaska, and ice and rock avalanches at Monte Rosa, Italy in 2005 and 2007. Deposit volumes range from 10⁶ to 10⁸ m³ and include rock, ice and snow. Here we focus on thermal aspects of these failures reflecting the involvement of glacier ice and permafrost at all sites, suggesting that thermal perturbations likely contributed to the slope failures. We use surface and troposphere air temperatures, near-surface rock temperatures, satellite thermal data, and recent 2D and 3D thermal modeling studies to document thermal conditions at the landslide sites. We distinguish between thermal perturbations of volcanic-geothermal and climatic origin, and thermal perturbations related to glacier–permafrost interaction. The data and analysis support the view that recent, current and future climatic change increases the likelihood of large slope failures in steep glacierized and permafrost terrain. However, some important aspects of these settings such as the geology and tectonic environment remain poorly understood, making the identification of future sites of large slope instabilities difficult. In view of the potentially large natural disasters that can be caused by such slope failures, improved data and understanding are needed.     

Relationships between glacier and rock glacier in the Maritime Alps, Schiantala Valley, Italy

In the Schiantala Valley of the Maritime Alps, the relationship between a till-like body and a contiguous rock glacier has been analyzed using geomorphologic, geoelectric and ice-petrographic methodologies. DC resistivity tomographies undertaken in the till and in the rock glacier show the presence of buried massive ice and ice-rich sediments, respectively. Ice samples from a massive ice outcrop show spherical gas inclusions and equidimensional ice crystals that are randomly orientated, confirming the typical petrographic characteristics of sedimentary ice. The rock glacier formation began after a phase of glacier expansion about 2550 ± 50 ¹⁴C yr BP. Further ice advance during the Little Ice Age (LIA) overrode the rock glacier root and caused partial shrinkage of the pre-existing permafrost. Finally, during the 19th and 20th centuries, the glacial surface became totally debris covered. Geomorphological and geophysical methods combined with analyses of ice structure and fabric can effectively interpret the genesis of landforms in an environment where glaciers and permafrost interact. Ice petrography proved especially useful for differentiating ice of past glaciers versus ice formed under permafrost conditions. These two mechanisms of ice formation are common in the Maritime Alps where many sites of modern rock glaciers were formerly occupied by LIA glaciers.     

基于合成孔径雷达技术及DEM的公格尔山冰川动力特征分析

冰川流速是冰川动力状况的重要标志,利用合成孔径雷达技术能快速获得大范围冰川的表面流速.利用日本高级陆地观测卫星(ALOS)相控阵型合成孔径雷达L波段(PALSAR)及欧洲太空局的ENVISAT/ASAR数据的特征匹配方法获得帕米尔高原公格尔山区冰川表面流速,并结合合成孔径雷达干涉相干与不同时期数字高程模型对公格尔山区典型冰川动力进行分析,获得研究区不同时间基线冰川表面相干性、表面流速以及基于不同时相DEM的典型冰川表面高程变化信息.结果表明:30 a来克拉牙依拉克冰川表面高程下降了(15±12.1)m,表碛区域近期运动速度变化不大;其木干冰川平均表面高程几乎无变化,但2007-2011年夏季表面流速明显减缓,靠近末端附近部分区域可能已经演化为非活动区;姜满加尔冰川位于西风带的迎风坡,积累区面积大,冰川流速较快,无表碛覆盖,但表面高程仍下降了(8.8±12.7)m.编号为5Y663D0009的冰川冰舌表碛覆盖区可能已经演化为非活动区,30 a来表面高程下降(8.6±12.0)m.综合分析表明,冰川规模特别是积累区面积的大小及所处位置、地形对冰川演化具有重要影响.     

通二井田不同地质构造成分的定量分离

应用二维多项式趋势面分析方法分离出通二井田不同级别的构造成分,进而推断出研究区构造应力作用方式和方向。      

用趋势面分析方法提高模拟退火法反演的效率

利用模拟退火反演过程中废弃的随机搜索的模型解信息, 建立起目标函数的二阶趋势面, 根据趋势面的分析结果预测和指导模拟退火的搜索方向, 使模拟退火法快速地收敛到全局最优解.数值试验证明, 这种方法比传统模拟退火法的计算效率高出十倍以上.      

Glacier fluctuations in the Alps and in the tropical Andes

This paper reports on glacier variations in two mountainous regions of the world, the Alps and the tropical Andes. Available records of snout position and glacier mass balance are compared and interpreted on a climatological basis. In both regions, there is a long-term decreasing trend over the 20th century. The yield of this trend is different from one glacier to the other, depending on geographic and geometric characteristics. Analysing the surface energy balance, net all wave radiation is the main energy flux at the glacier surface. The turbulent fluxes represent an important term with strong positive sensible heat flux in the Alps and strong negative latent heat flux (sublimation) in the Andes. Tropical glaciers are sensitive to inter-annual variations in solid precipitation that affects the albedo, whereas Alpine glaciers are strongly influenced by air temperature changes in the Alps. To cite this article: C. Vincent et al., C. R. Geoscience 337 (2005).     

Posteruption glacier development within the crater of Mount St. Helens, Washington, USA

The cataclysmic eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, resulted in a large, north-facing amphitheater, with a steep headwall rising 700 m above the crater floor. In this deeply shaded niche a glacier, here named the Amphitheater glacier, has formed. Tongues of ice-containing crevasses extend from the main ice mass around both the east and the west sides of the lava dome that occupies the center of the crater floor. Aerial photographs taken in September 1996 reveal a small glacier in the southwest portion of the amphitheater containing several crevasses and a bergschrund-like feature at its head. The extent of the glacier at this time is probably about 0.1 km². By September 2001, the debris-laden glacier had grown to about 1 km² in area, with a maximum thickness of about 200 m, and contained an estimated 120,000,000 m³ of ice and rock debris. Approximately one-third of the volume of the glacier is thought to be rock debris derived mainly from rock avalanches from the surrounding amphitheater walls. The newly formed Amphitheater glacier is not only the largest glacier on Mount St. Helens but its aerial extent exceeds that of all other remaining glaciers combined.     

The AD 1717 rock avalanche deposits in the upper Ferret Valley (Italy): a dating approach with cosmogenic 10Be

On 12 September AD 1717, a rock volume larger than 10 million m³ collapsed onto the Triolet Glacier, mobilized a mass composed of ice and sediment and travelled more than 7 km downvalley in the upper Ferret Valley, Mont Blanc Massif (Italy). This rock avalanche destroyed two small settlements, causing seven casualties and loss of livestock. No detailed maps were made at the time. Later investigators attributed accumulations of granitic boulders and irregular ridges on the upper valley floor to either glacial deposition, or the AD 1717 rock avalanche, or a complex mixture of glacial deposition, earlier rock avalanche and AD 1717 rock avalanche origin. In this study, we present cosmogenic ¹⁰Be exposure ages from nine boulders in the extensive chaotic boulder deposit with irregular ridges, two from Holocene glacier‐free areas, and one from a Little Ice Age moraine. Exposure ages between 330 ± 23 and 483 ± 123 a from eight of nine boulders from the chaotic deposit indicate that at least seven were deposited by the AD 1717 rock avalanche. The other three boulders yielded ¹⁰Be exposure ages of 10 900 ± 400, 9700 ± 400 and 244 ± 97 a, respectively. Our results are in good agreement with the existing chronology from dendrochronology and lichenometry, and radiocarbon analysis of wood samples, but not with older ¹⁴C ages from a peat bog in the upper part of the valley. Based on the new age control, the rock avalanche deposits cover the whole bottom of the upper Ferret valley. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.