Advanced DInSAR analysis on mining areas: La Union case study (Murcia, SE Spain)

The town of La Union (SE, Spain) is located within a metal mining area that has been exploited since the Roman period. This historic exploitation has left behind a high concentration of abandoned underground mining galleries. Currently, an industrial area is subsiding due to the collapse of one of these galleries in May 1998. In this paper, an advanced Differential Interferometry SAR (DInSAR) method called the Coherent Pixels Technique (CPT) has been used to study the subsidence phenomena for two time intervals, from January 1998 to December 2000, and from March 2003 to December 2004. DInSAR-derived deformation maps have enabled the detection and monitoring of different deformation processes that affect several locations within the study area. By comparing these results with the underground mining galleries map, a clear relationship between their presence and the subsidence has been proved. Deformation values retrieved with DInSAR between April 2003 and December 2004 have been compared with the topographical leveling network measurements performed in this same period, providing an absolute average difference of 0.7 cm with a standard deviation of 0.5 cm. Results obtained in the city of La Union have shown that the advanced DInSAR technique is able to provide very useful spatial and temporal deformation data for the measurement of small scale subsidence throughout short time periods. This technique has enabled the temporal evolution of the phenomena in the city of La Unión to be studied and understanding of subsidence to be expanded beyond the limits of a deployed topographical control network, in a more cost effective way than classical methods.     

Joint analysis of SAR interferometry and electrical resistivity tomography surveys for investigating ground deformation: the case-study of Satriano di Lucania (Potenza, Italy)

We have jointly applied microwave remote sensing imaging and ground-based geophysical methodologies for investigating ground deformation. In particular, the Differential Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (DInSAR) technique referred to as Small BAseline Subset (SBAS) algorithm and the Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) method have been applied. The former is a tool for investigating large areas, allowing us to detect deformation phenomena and to analyse their spatial patterns and temporal evolution; the latter permits us to reconstruct, with high spatial resolution, the geometry of near-surface geological structures and to estimate the electrical resistivity of outcropping terrains. The starting point of our analysis has been a DInSAR survey carried out on an area of about 400 km² centred around the town of Potenza (Basilicata region, Italy), for which SAR data acquired by the ERS-1/2 sensors in the time interval 1992–2000 were available. The DInSAR analysis allowed us to detect an unknown ground deformation effect which involves the urban area of Satriano di Lucania, located close to Potenza. An on-site ERT survey was then carried out in order to characterize in detail the physical properties of the terrains involved in the main deformation pattern detected via the DInSAR processing. The integration of the DInSAR and ERT measurements permitted us to investigate areas where the deformation have space-variant characteristics and allowed us to formulate a hypothesis on the origin of the detected displacement processes that, although not fully conclusive, is consistent with the overall DInSAR and ERT analysis.     

Multi-sensor DInSAR applied to the spatiotemporal evolution analysis of ground surface deformation in Cerro Prieto basin,Baja California,Mexico, for the 1993–2014 period

The combined effects of active tectonics and anthropogenic activities, primarily geothermal resources exploitation for electricity production in Cerro Prieto geothermal field, influence the ground surface deformation in Cerro Prieto basin, Baja California, Mexico. In this study, a large set of multi-sensor C-band SAR images have been employed to reconstruct the spatiotemporal evolution of aseismic ground surface deformation that has affected Cerro Prieto basin from 1993 to 2014. Conventional DInSAR together with the interferograms stacking procedure was applied. The results showed that the study area presented considerable surface deformation (mainly subsidence) during the entire time of the investigation. The main changes in rate and pattern of surface deformation have a good correlation in time and space with the changes in production in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field. Comparison of LOS displacement maps from different viewing geometries, and decomposition (where possible) of LOS displacement into vertical and horizontal (east–west) components, revealed considerable horizontal displacement which mostly reflects the ground movement at and beyond the margin of the subsidence basin toward the areas of highest subsidence rates. In addition, the validation of the DInSAR results by comparing them against measurements from leveling surveys was performed, confirming the high reliably of satellite interferometry for the ground surface deformation rate mapping in the study area.     

PS技术及其在地表形变监测中的应用现状与发展

合成孔径雷达干涉测量技术（InSAR）为地表形变监测提供了极具应用潜力的手段,具有大面积、高空间分辨率、全天候及成本低的优点。但由于大气条件变化、地表覆被等时间空间去相干的影响,其精度和普适性受到极大限制。 近几年发展的永久散射体（PS）技术在传统差分干涉测量（DInSAR）中引入时间维,分析长时间内保持稳定的像元集相位变化,获得毫米级的地表形变测量精度,同时有效地解决了时间空间去相关和大气非均质性影响的问题,目前在滑坡、地面沉降和地质灾害监测等领域得到了广泛的应用。PS技术具有高精度、高时间分辨率、能极大提高影像利用率的优点;但只适用较小区域、需要大量影像、且不适于分析快速突变的地表形变。为克服PS应用中的问题,近年来出现了三角反射体技术、多平台PS技术及相关性像元分析（CPT）技术,使PS技术应用具有更广泛的适应性。     

DInSAR-based monitoring of land subsidence related to groundwater over-exploitation: example from developing urban center of Nairobi,Kenya

Over-exploitation of groundwater in many evolving urban settings causes ground subsidence and permanent loss of aquifer storage capacity. DInSAR (differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar) time series data from 2016 to 2019 were used to monitor and model the surface deformation around Nairobi, Kenya, where the water demand has exceeded the supply without capacity augmentation for over two decades. The aquifer system constitutes hard rock to semiconfined ash beds in volcanic terrain. The Small Baseline DInSAR technique identified the spatial pattern of subsidence and magnitude (line-of-sight (LOS) velocity), which exceeds 41 mm/year in the semiconfined aquifer towards the western-central part of Nairobi. The spatial distribution of subsidence is consistent with the groundwater level drop and probable compaction modeled using aquifer characteristics for 1950–2015. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data at a station from 2007 to 2018 indicate a cumulative 4-cm subsidence which is comparable to ~2.5-cm LOS subsidence from the present study for 2016–2019. The correlation with other hydrological data suggests the aquifer is experiencing inelastic subsidence due to unsustainable groundwater extraction, putting a massive strain on Nairobi’s aquifer system. The present DInSAR based study establishes its effectiveness in the monitoring of groundwater over-exploitation-based subsidence and associated hazard to the aquifer in emerging urban centers.

     

台湾浊水溪冲积扇地表变形监测雷达干涉技术与资料融合方法

浊水溪冲积扇为台湾目前最严重的地层下陷区,已设置包括DInSAR、GPS、水准测量、磁环分层式监测井与地下水位井等多元监测系统。大范围监测地层下陷方法中的水准测量有取样性不足之缺点,而DInSAR也易受相位不相关与大气误差影响而致精度降低。本研究利用2006~2008年期间共20幅ENVISAT卫星影像,搭配PSI技术,有效降低DInSAR的误差影响,同时获得107.6像素/km2的取样密度,弥补了水准测量取样密度仅0.2个/km2的取样性不足,透过295个监测点交叉验证,PSI与水准测量的成果显示两者的均方根误差为0.6cm。本研究亦发展了资料融合方法,有效结合水准测量与PSI成果,实验结果显示融合后的成果更能精确展现下陷的范围与下陷中心的变化,同时该成果与水准测量之均方根误差降至0.4cm。     

Using differential SAR interferometry to map land subsidence: a case study in the Pingtung Plain of SW Taiwan

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry (InSAR) is a geodetic tool widely applied in the studies of earth-surface deformation. This technique has the benefits of high spatial resolution and centimetre-scale accuracy. Differential SAR interferometry (DInSAR) is used to measure ground deformation with repeat-pass SAR images. This study applied DInSAR and persistent scatterers InSAR (PSInSAR) for detecting land subsidence in the Pingtung Plain, southern Taiwan, between 1995 and 2000. In recent years, serious land subsidence occurred along coastal regions of Taiwan as a consequence of over-pumping of underground water. Results of this study revealed that the critical subsidence region is located on the coast near the estuary of Linpien River. It is also found that subsidence was significantly higher during the dry season than the wet season. The maximum annual subsidence rate of the dry season is up to −11.51 cm/year in critical subsidence region and the vertical land movement rate is much slower during the wet season. The average subsidence rates in wet and dry seasons are −0.31 and −3.37 cm/year, respectively. As a result, the subsidence rate in dry seasons is about 3 cm larger than in wet seasons.     

基于改进时序InSAR技术的东莞地面沉降时空演变特征

东莞市是珠三角城市群和粤港澳大湾区的重要节点城市,深厚欠固结软弱土及其诱发的地面沉降已成为湾区内代表性的区域地质灾害问题,影响城市地质环境安全。为研究东莞市地面沉降发育规律及时空演变特征,采用改进时序InSAR技术对覆盖东莞地区的137景Sentinel-1 SLC SAR影像数据进行处理,分析了2015年6月至2020年6月地表形变动态演化规律。结果表明：（1）全域内地表沉降变形整体较稳定,沉降发育区占市域面积的34.6%,变形严重发育区主要集中在麻涌镇、道滘镇、洪梅镇、中堂镇、沙田镇及滨海湾新区;（2）大部分沉降变形点处于缓慢发展变形阶段,年平均沉降速率在20 mm/a以内,累计沉降量在1 000 mm以内;（3）结合形变监测和现场调查,认为地面沉降与深厚软土发育和人类工程活动的耦合作用有很强的相关性。证明该方法能较好地识别和反映城市复杂形态区地面沉降发育的时空演化特征,为灾害预警、减避及治理提供技术支持。     

多基线距DInSAR反演河南省永城煤矿区地表形变

永城是河南省重要的煤炭生产基地,煤矿开采后形成的塌陷区中有70%以上是耕地,已严重威胁到当地居民的生产生活秩序以及生命财产安全,迫切需要采用快速高效的技术手段获取塌陷区的信息来为相关部门提供决策依据;研究中选用2004～2006年的6景ASAR数据,采用基于相干目标的多基线距DInSAR技术对河南永城煤矿区的地表形变进行反演;研究中采用的地表形变反演技术克服了传统DInSAR技术失相干的问题,反演得出的地表形变的范围和程度与调查结果相吻合,表明该项技术具有很强的实用性和推广性;最后分析反演误差产生的原因并提出今后可采用L波段以及多平台联合监测来提高煤矿区地表形变的精度。     

断裂活动影响矿区的采煤沉陷灾害问题

文章结合抚顺矿区实际,分析论述了断裂活动影响矿区的地应力环境特征。阐述了在断裂活动影响矿区,岩体长期大规模开挖造成局部区域构造应力卸载,岩体弹性变形能恢复发生水平变形,导致地表产生附加水平移动与变形。通常的沉陷区边缘区域,地表移动变形值不大,采动损害也相对较轻。但断裂活动影响矿区,沉陷区边缘区常存在着明显的水平移动与变形,并造成相应损害。尤其是在矿震等岩体地质动力现象显现影响下,地表沉陷灾害更为严重。     

基于时序InSAR技术的常州市地面沉降监测与分析

城市地面沉降不仅会对居民生命安全造成影响,而且也会给当地的社会经济造成损失。常州市位于长江三角洲地面 沉降区,也是我国经济最发达的地区之一。因此地面沉降监测是常州市掌握地面沉降的动态,为防灾减灾提供决策依据的 重要举措。本文采用SBAS InSAR 方法对2012-2013 年23 景TerraSAR-X 高分辨率雷达影像数据进行了地表形变的反演,获 取了该时间段常州地区年均沉降速率和时序地表累积形变图。结果表明,在整个观测期间,常州市呈现出“全区基本保持 稳定,武进区局部沉降严重”的特点。为此,我们利用PS-InSAR 技术对武进区的地面沉降进行了重点监测,发现该区多条 重要交通线路存在不同程度的地面沉降。最后我们结合历史监测结果和水文地质背景,揭示了常州地区近50 年地面沉降的 时空变化特征和规律。综合分析表明,地下水全面禁采后研究区地面沉降的确得到了有效控制,沉降速率减缓,甚至出现 了回弹。而武进地区的地面沉降虽然也在减缓,但仍然存在明显的地面沉降,一些重要交通线路的周边沉降已超过安全阈 值,有必要在常规监测的同时,对这些沉降严重的区域进行重点监测,并建立预警预报机制,在城市基础设施选址和规划 时提供决策依据。     

GIS-based spatial and temporal prediction system development for regional land subsidence hazard mitigation

An integrated GIS-based approach for establishing a spatial and temporal prediction system for groundwater flow and land subsidence is proposed and applied to a subsidence-progressed Japanese coastal plain. Various kinds of fundamental data relating to groundwater flow and land subsidence are digitized and entered into a GIS database. A surface water hydrological cycle simulation is performed using a GIS spatial data operation for the entire plain, and the spatial and temporal groundwater infiltration quantity is hereby obtained. Through the data transformation from the GIS database to a groundwater flow code (MODFLOW), a 3D groundwater flow model is established and unsteady groundwater flow simulation for the past 21 years is conducted with results which compare satisfactorily with observed results. Finally, a Visual Basic code is developed for land subsidence calculations considering aquifer and aquitard deformation. Future land subsidence in the plain is predicted assuming different water pumping scenarios, and the results provide important information for land subsidence mitigation decision-making.     

Monitoring severe aquifer-system compaction and land subsidence in Taiwan using multiple sensors: Yunlin,the southern Choushui River Alluvial Fan

During 1992–2007, excessive pumping of groundwater caused large-scale aquifer-system compaction and land subsidence in the Choshui River Alluvial Fan, especially in the area of Yunlin county. The subsidence impedes surface-water runoff and endangers the operation of Taiwan High Speed Rail. Leveling, Global Positioning System (GPS), multi-level compaction monitoring well, and Differential Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (DInSAR) are used to study the extent of subsidence in Yunlin and its mechanism. These sensors complement each other in spatial and temporal resolutions. A leveling network totaling 434 km in length was deployed to derive subsidence at every 1.5 km along the routes, and the result is accurate to few mm and shows a basin-like subsidence pattern centering at Tuku Township. Four multi-level compaction monitoring wells, co-located with GPS pillars, detect compactions at different depths, showing that the aquifer-system compaction (the cause of subsidence) occurs mostly below depths >200 m, where reduction of groundwater pumping is most needed. The vertical displacements from GPS and leveling agree to within 1 cm, and are larger than the cumulative compaction detected by the compaction-monitoring wells, suggesting that compaction also occurs below 300 m (the depth of the wells). The vertical displacements derived using DInSAR and 8 ENVISAT SAR images agree with the leveling result to 1–2 cm.     

Evidence of regional subsidence and associated interior wetland loss induced by hydrocarbon production, Gulf Coast region, USA

Analysis of remote images, elevation surveys, stratigraphic cross-sections, and hydrocarbon production data demonstrates that extensive areas of wetland loss in the northern Gulf Coast region of the United States were associated with large-volume fluid production from mature petroleum fields. Interior wetland losses at many sites in coastal Louisiana and Texas are attributed largely to accelerated land subsidence and fault reactivation induced by decreased reservoir pressures as a result of rapid or prolonged extraction of gas, oil, and associated brines. Evidence that moderately-deep hydrocarbon production has induced land-surface subsidence and reactivated faults that intersect the surface include: (1) close temporal and spatial correlation of fluid production with surficial changes including rapid subsidence of wetland sediments near producing fields, (2) measurable offsets of shallow strata across the zones of wetland loss, (3) large reductions in subsurface pressures where subsidence rates are high, (4) coincidence of orientation and direction of displacement between surface fault traces and faults that bound the reservoirs, and (5) accelerated subsidence rates near producing fields compared to subsidence rates in surrounding areas or compared to geological rates of subsidence. Based on historical trends, subsidence rates in the Gulf Coast region near producing fields most likely will decrease in the future because most petroleum fields are nearly depleted. Alternatively, continued extraction of conventional energy resources as well as potential production of alternative energy resources (geopressured-geothermal fluids) in the Gulf Coast region could increase subsidence and land losses and also contribute to inundation of areas of higher elevation.     

高应力区露天转地下开采岩体移动规律

以金川龙首矿为例,基于2003―2008年长达12期的GPS实测数据,按照时空分布比较分析总体变形趋势,得出整个矿区的地表沉降特征、平面位移特征、行线（勘探线）随时间变化的沉降和平面位移特征。据此分析了以水平构造应力为主导的高应力区露天转地下开采引起岩体的变形规律,并与该矿闭坑之初的变形规律比较,通过理论分析的方法对产生差异的原因进行初步解释,并用数值模拟的方法加以验证,其研究结果对认识露天转地下开采引起的岩体移动、破坏特征,指导矿区安全生产有积极意义     

基于时序InSAR和GPS技术的北京平原区地表三维形变场特征

文中采用InSAR与GPS技术相结合,获取了北京平原区时序地表三维形变场信息,分析了其分布特征与演化规律.研究表明:(1)北京平原区在抽水引发的第四系附加应力场作用下,地表呈现出显著的三维变形特征,以垂向变形为主,并辅以水平向位移.(2)平原区地面沉降主要集中在东部、北部和南部等地,存在多个沉降中心,总体呈减缓的趋势....     

复杂地质条件下矿山地下开采地表变形规律的研究

地质条件是矿山开采岩层移动的基础,复杂的地质条件常使得地表移动角、沉陷角预测不准,导致灾难性后果。以典型复杂地质矿山程潮铁矿东区为例,以多年地表变形监测结果为依据,对在其特殊地质条件下地表变形和岩层移动的机制进行了分析研究。结果表明,地下采矿是矿区岩体破坏的直接诱因,地下水产生的静水压力和动水压力强化了岩体的变形与破坏;矿区岩体中断层、节理等特殊地质结构是岩体破坏的基础;构造应力场的存在是围岩向采空区产生较大移动变形的主要影响因素;在采矿之初,地表塌陷主要是由地下水疏干引起的;地表大规模塌陷形成以后,地下采空区的扩大是引起地表塌陷的主要原因,但矿区特殊的地质条件对地表塌陷范围的扩展速度有重要影响。     

基于InSAR技术的缓倾煤层开采诱发顺层岩体地表变形模式研究

贵州贞丰县某煤矿开采煤层以向斜缓倾的三叠系上统火把冲组（T3h）为主,与贵州省大部分煤矿开采的背斜反倾煤层不同,其采矿活动诱发的地面沉降和滑坡风险亦表现出不同的变形破坏模式(背斜反倾煤层易诱发倾倒崩塌、顺层缓倾煤层易诱发地面塌陷与滑坡)。论文利用升、降轨观测的共15期3 m空间分辨率L波段PALSAR -2 SAR为数据源,开展了多期地表变形D -InSAR测量,确定出变形发生的位置、范围与滞后时间。经实地调查验证,InSAR解算结果较好地吻合了矿区开采范围和地表破坏情况,证实了InSAR在煤矿区识别时序性地表形变的准确性。进而分解计算了地表三维变形,并通过与地下开采范围和过程的相关性分析,深化了对该地区缓倾煤层地下开采诱发的顺层滑坡变形模式的认识:（1）InSAR可以识别计算出采矿区地表变形的范围与沉降量,矿区变形在干涉影像中表现为以采空区地表为中心向四周扩散的圆环状变形条纹;（2）地表变形区域覆盖地下采空区上方及附近地表区域,根据地表变形情况与地下采空区范围计算出该地区上山边界角约70°、下山边界角约58°;（3）地下采空与地表沉降变形存在约30 d的时间滞后;（4）顺层地下采空引发的地表水平移动方向受地层产状、地表坡向共同作用,水平向为沿层面的顺层滑移与向沉降中心汇聚的合成运动结果;（5）沿层面的顺层滑移与地表坡度因素叠加造成采空区地表上山侧岩石受拉产生拉裂缝,下山侧则易产生塌陷坑及裂缝。     

Environmental Investigation and Evaluation of Land Subsidence in the Datong Coalfield Based on InSAR Technology

Heavy mining of Jurassic and Carboniferous horizontal coal seams in the Datong coalfield has seriously affected the local geological environment, which is mainly manifested by such geohazards as soil avalanches, landslides, mudflows, surface subsidence, surface cracks, surface solid waste accumulation and surface deformation. More seriously, coal mining causes groundwater to leak. Overpumping of groundwater has resulted in substantial land subsidence of the urban area in Datong City. Based on the previous geo-environmental investigation in the work area, the authors used radar remote sensing techniques such as InSAR （synthetic aperture radar interferometry） and D-InSAR （differential synthetic aperture radar interferometry）, supplemented by the optical remote sensing method, for geo-environmental investigation to ascertain the geo-environmental background of the Datong Jurassic and Carboniferous-Permian coalfield and evaluate the effects of the geohazards, thus providing a basis for the geo-environmental protection, geohazard control and prevention, land improvement and optimization of the human environment. In this study 8 cog-nominal ERS-1/2 SAR data frames during 1992 to 2003 were used, but the following processing was made： （1） the multitemporal SAR magnitude images were used to interpret the geological structure, vegetation, microgeomorphology and drainage system; （2） the multi-temporal InSAR coherent images were used to make a classification of surface features and evaluate the coherence change due to coal mining; and （3） the multi-temporal cog-nominal SAR images were used to complete D-InSAR processing to remove the information of differential deformation areas （sites）. In the end, a ten-year time series of differential interferograms were obtained using the multi-temporal cog-nominal SAR images. In the tests, 84 deformed areas （sites） were obtained, belonging to those in 1993-1996, 1996-1997, 1997-1998, 1998-2001, 1998-2002 and 2001-2003 respectively. Of the 84 areas, 44 are m