Experimental study of potential wellbore cement carbonation by various phases of carbon dioxide during geologic carbon sequestration

Hydrated Portland cement was reacted with CO₂ in supercritical, gaseous and aqueous phases to understand the potential cement alteration processes along the length of a wellbore, extending from a deep CO₂ storage reservoir to the shallow subsurface during geologic carbon sequestration. The 3-D X-ray microtomography (XMT) images showed that the cement alteration was significantly more extensive with CO₂-saturated synthetic groundwater than dry or wet supercritical CO₂ at high P (10 MPa)-T (50 °C) conditions. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM–EDS) analysis also exhibited a systematic Ca depletion and C enrichment in cement matrix exposed to CO₂-saturated groundwater. Integrated XMT, XRD and SEM–EDS analyses identified the formation of an extensive carbonated zone filled with CaCO₃(s), as well as a porous degradation front and an outermost silica-rich zone in cement after exposure to CO₂-saturated groundwater. Cement alteration by CO₂-saturated groundwater for 2–8 months overall decreased the porosity from 31% to 22% and the permeability by an order of magnitude. Cement alteration by dry or wet supercritical CO₂ was slow and minor compared to CO₂-saturated groundwater. A thin single carbonation zone was formed in cement after exposure to wet supercritical CO₂ for 8 months or dry supercritical CO₂ for 15 months. An extensive calcite coating was formed on the outside surface of a cement sample after exposure to wet gaseous CO₂ for 1–3 months. The chemical–physical characterization of hydrated Portland cement after exposure to various phases of CO₂ indicates that the extent of cement carbonation can be significantly heterogeneous depending on the CO₂ phase present in the wellbore environment. Both experimental and geochemical modeling results suggest that wellbore cement exposure to supercritical, gaseous and aqueous phases of CO₂ during geologic C sequestration is unlikely to damage the wellbore integrity because cement alteration by all phases of CO₂ is dominated by carbonation reactions. This is consistent with previous field studies of wellbore cement with extensive carbonation after exposure to CO₂ for three decades. However, XMT imaging indicates that preferential cement alteration by supercritical CO₂ or CO₂-saturated groundwater can occur along the cement–steel or cement–rock interfaces. This highlights the importance of further investigation of cement degradation along the interfaces of wellbore materials to ensure permanent geologic carbon storage.     

A model for the assessment of aquifer contamination potential based on regional geologic framework

The texture and three-dimensional framework of geologic materials should be considered in assessments of groundwater's vulnerability to contamination because geology controls the movement of contaminants and groundwater and influences groundwater quality. Contaminants are introduced into, transmitted through, and stored by geologic materials. We present a model that identifies aquifers and ranks sequences of geologic materials by their relative potential for transmitting water and contaminants from land surface. With this basis, the model can be used to assess the potential for contamination of aquifers by surface activities such as landfitling of wastes or application of agricultural chemicals. A regional map of aquifer contamination potential can be generated from the model; it retains the geologic map information intact and available for reinterpretation or other uses.The model was developed using broad, regional map information and is intended to be a general tool for assessing the regional vulnerability of aquifers to contamination. It is not intended for local, site-specific use, but for prioritizing local areas where contamination potential and/or land-use history warrant more detailed assessment or monitoring. Because it provides a regional view of contamination potential, regional patterns or trends of map units should be evaluated, rather than using the map information literally to assess local areas. Methods of applying this model and contamination potential map to groundwater protection and management are currently being studied; research includes an attempt to statistically validate the model with water-quality data, and to identify natural groupings of the ranked contamination potential map units.     

An assessment of the time-dependence structure of streams in New Jersey,USA

The lag-one serial correlation coefficient is one of the important hydrological metric used as a quantitative measure of carry-over capacity of water stored within a catchment. In this study, the annual lag-one serial correlation coefficient has been computed for 27 unregulated streams spread across the two main climatic regions of New Jersey, USA. The computed mean annual lag-one serial correlation coefficient was found to be 0.17, which is typical of the national value. It appears that streams that drain northern catchments have higher carry-over capacity in comparison to their southern counterparts. Further, the Goud–Dincer Gamma method of reservoir storage capacity was used to compare the average reservoir storage needed to meet the over-year storage requirement for a hypothetical reservoir located within the two main climatic regions. The results revealed that on average, a reservoir needed to meet over-year storage requirements in climate region 1 (northern New Jersey) needs to be a little more than one half times as large as those in climate region 2 (southern New Jersey) for the same level of regulation. Though groundwater recharge to streams in the southern catchments are generally higher than their northern counterparts, it appears relatively less ground water (release from storage) in any given year in the south is carried from the previous year(s).     

Time-window-based filtering method for near-surface detection of leakage from geologic carbon sequestration sites

We use process-based modeling techniques to characterize the temporal features of natural biologically controlled surface CO₂ fluxes and the relationships between the assimilation and respiration fluxes. Based on these analyses, we develop a signal-enhancing technique that combines a novel time-window splitting scheme, a simple median filtering, and an appropriate scaling method to detect potential signals of leakage of CO₂ from geologic carbon sequestration sites from within datasets of net near-surface CO₂ flux measurements. The technique can be directly applied to measured data and does not require subjective gap filling or data-smoothing preprocessing. Preliminary application of the new method to flux measurements from a CO₂ shallow-release experiment appears promising for detecting a leakage signal relative to background variability. The leakage index of ±2 was found to span the range of biological variability for various ecosystems as determined by observing CO₂ flux data at various control sites for a number of years.     

地质封存二氧化碳沿断层泄漏数值模拟研究

安全性和封存效果是二氧化碳（CO2）地质封存（GCS）最受关注的问题,其中以断层/裂缝引起的场地不确定性因素较为复杂。利用储层多相流模拟软件TOUGH2/ECO2N,研究了不同情境下注入深部咸水层中的CO2沿断层发生泄漏的时间、速率、泄漏量等特征。通过15个场地尺度的模型结果分析表明,CO2注入方案、断层性质（发育位置、产状、几何形态、内部结构）、系统内岩层的组合形态对CO2泄漏均有影响。相同储存环境和断层发育条件下,CO2注入速率从1.59 kg/s增加至6.34 kg/s,CO2泄漏时间提前3 706 d,泄漏量在20 a后增加至注入总量的32.43%。断层发育位置对CO2封存影响极为显著,本次研究,距注入井100 m位置的断层可造成CO2的泄漏量在20 a后高达总注入量的63.39%。相同条件下,倾斜/窄小的断层比垂直/宽厚的断层对CO2及储层咸水的泄漏影响更小。断层渗透率增加一倍,可导致CO2泄漏量增加2.11%,泄漏速率约提高0.006~0.01 kg/s。     

Matrix permeability of the confined Floridan Aquifer,Florida, USA

The Upper Floridan Aquifer of peninsular Florida retains most of its depositional porosity and, as a result, is a multi-porosity aquifer: double porosity (fractured porous aquifer) downdip where the aquifer is confined, and triple porosity (karstic, fractured porous aquifer) in the updip, unconfined region. Matrix permeability in the confined region varies in the range <10^–14.4–10^–11.1 m², as determined by 12,000 minipermeameter measurements on 1,210 m of slabbed core. Limestones divide into 13 textural classes and dolomites into two. Depositional facies (textural class) strongly correlates with matrix permeability. As a result, the facies architecture of the Eocene and Oligocene carbonates that compose the confined portion of the aquifer controls the lateral and vertical distribution of its matrix transmissivity. The most-permeable facies are grainstones (median k, 10^–12.4 m²) and sucrosic dolomites (median k, 10^–12.0 m²). Together, they are responsible for ~73% of the matrix transmissivity of the logged cores, although they constitute only ~24% of the thickness. Examination of the flow equations of fractured porous aquifers suggests that the permeability of these two facies is large enough that matrix permeability cannot be discounted in modeling the hydraulics of the double-porosity system. This conclusion likely applies to most, if not all, Cenozoic double-porosity carbonate aquifers, as average matrix and fracture permeabilities in the Floridan Aquifer are similar to other Cenozoic carbonates from around the world.

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Resumen El Acuífero Superior de Florida conserva gran parte de su porosidad deposicional y, como resultado, se comporta como un acuífero multi-poroso: de doble porosidad (acuífero poroso fracturado) a favor del buzamiento, donde se halla confinado, y de triple porosidad (acuífero poroso fracturado y kárstico) en sentido opuesto, en la zona en que se comporta como libre. La permeabilidad de la matriz en la región confinada está comprendida entre menos de 10^–14,4 y 10^–11,1 m², según determinaciones hechas a partir de 12.000 medidas de mini-permeámetro en 1.210 rodajas de testigos. Se ha distinguido quince clases texturales de calcita (n=2.298) y dos de dolomita (n=983), y las facies ejercen un gran control en la permeabilidad de la matriz. Como consecuencia, la arquitectura de las facies de los carbonatos Eocenos y Oligocenos que forman la zona confinada del acuífero controla la distribución lateral y vertical de la transmisividad de la matriz. Las facies más permeables son grainstones o grano-soportadas sin matriz (mediana de permeabilidad de 10^–12,4 m²) y dolomitas sacaroideas (10^–12,0 m²). Ambas son responsables de aproximadamente el 73% de la transmisividad de los testigos ensayados, aunque sólo constituyen el 24% de su espesor. El examen de las ecuaciones de flujo en acuíferos porosos fracturados sugiere que la permeabilidad de estas facies más permeables es lo suficientemente elevada como para no poder despreciar la permeabilidad de la matriz en la modelación hidráulica de dichos sistemas de doble porosidad. La proyección de la estratigrafía regional y de las tendencias de las facies en la parte del acuífero ubicado en sentido contrario al buzamiento, que tiene carácter de libre y está más karstificado, predice que las permeabilidades mayores son debidas al incremento de los porcentajes de grainstones y dolomitas sacaroideas. Por tanto, es probable que la transmisividad de la matriz deba ser tenida en cuenta en el sistema de triple porosidad de la región.

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Résumé Laquifère floridien supérieur de la péninsule de Floride contient plus que sa porosité de dépôt et, par conséquent, est un aquifère à porosité multiple: double porosité (aquifère fracturé poreux) en aval-pendage, là où laquifère est captif, et triple porosité (aquifère karstique et fracturé poreux) en amont-pendage, dans la région où il est libre. La perméabilité de matrice dans la région captive est comprise entre moins de 10^–14,4 et 10^–11,1 m² daprès 12.000 mesures par miniperméamètre sur 1.200 m de carottes. Quinze classes texturales de calcaires (n=2.298) et deux classes de dolomies (n=983) ont été reconnues; il existe un fort contrôle du faciès sur la perméabilité. En effet, larchitecture des carbonates de lEocène et de lOligocène qui constituent la partie captive de laquifère contrôle la distribution latérale et verticale de la transmissivité de la matrice. Les faciès les plus perméables sont les grainstones (k médian, 10^–12,4 m²) et les dolomies saccharoïdes (10^–12,0 m²). Ces deux faciès rendent compte de 73% environ de la transmissivité dans les carottes étudiées, bien quils ne contribuent quà 24% environ de lépaisseur. Lexamen des équations découlement en aquifères fracturés poreux suggère que la perméabilité de ces faciès les plus perméables est assez importante pour que la perméabilité de matrice ne puisse pas être écartée dans la modélisation de lhydraulique de ces systèmes à double porosité. Si lon projette ces tendances de la stratigraphie régionale et des faciès à lamont-pendage, la partie non captive et karstifiée de laquifère laisse prévoir de fortes perméabilités dues à des pourcentages croissants de grainstones et de dolomies saccharoïdes. Il est donc très probable quil sera nécessaire de prendre en compte la transmissivité de matrice dans un système à triple porosité dans cette région.

     

A comparison of mercury in estuarine fish between Florida Bay and the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, USA

Concentrations of mercury (Hg) in fish were compared between two Florida estuaries, the Indian River Lagoon and Florida Bay. The objective was to determine if differences in Hg concentration exist and to attempt to relate those differences to sources of Hg. Five hundred and thirteen estuarine fish were collected and analyzed for Hg concentration. Fish species collected were black drum, bluefish, bonnethead shark, common snook, crevalle jack, gafftopsail catfish, gray snapper, Mayan cichlid, pompano, red drum, sheepshead, southern flounder, spadefish, and spotted seatrout. Analysis of variance of species-specific Hg data among the three defined regions of eastern and western Florida Bay and the Indian River Lagoon substantiated regional differences. Proximity to known anthropogenic sources of Hg appeared to be a significant factor in the distribution of Hg concentration among the fish collected. Sufficient numbers of crevalle jack, gray snapper, and spotted seatrout were collected to permit statistical analysis among regions. Hg concentrations in all three of these species from eastern Florida Bay were higher than those collected in the other two areas. A major fraction of the estuarine fish collected in eastern Florida Bay exceeded one or more State of Florida or U.S. Food and Drug Administration fish consumption health advisory criteria. In general, fish from western Florida Bay contained less Hg than those from the Indian River Lagoon, and fish from the Indian River contained less Hg than those from eastern Florida Bay. Crevalle jack from all areas and spotted seatrout from Florida Bay were placed on a consumption advisory in Florida. Detailed study of Florida Bay food web dynamics and Hg biogeochemical cycling is recommended to better understand the processes underlying the elevated Hg levels in fish from eastern Florida Bay. This information may be vital in the formulation of appropriate strategies in the ongoing South Florida restoration process.     

城市地质灾害危险性评价浅析

由于人口高度集中、建筑密集,加之人类工程活动对地质环境的改造强烈,城市地质灾害发生的强度和频度也相应较高.地质灾害危险性评价是城市规划的依据,对城市发展至关重要.城市的自然条件、地质环境和城市功能不同,其存在的地质灾害类型和灾害严重程度也不同,大体可分为平原城市、山区城市、沿海城市、矿业城市四种基本类型分别进行灾害危险性评价.危险性评价的主要步骤为初步确定可能发生的灾害类型;分别对各单一灾种进行危险性评价;将单一灾种评价的结果叠加,得出城市地质灾害危险性综合评价成果,即地质灾害危险性区划(一般划分为4个等级).在危险性评价的基础之上,建立灾害预测预报和监测系统,进而应逐步建立和完善城市地质灾害防御系统.     

北京市通州区缓变性地质灾害危险性分区评价

以北京市通州区为例,提出了平原区缓变性地质灾害危险性分区评价方法,建立了单灾种地质灾害危险性分区评价指标体系;在对单灾种地质灾害危险性分区评价的基础上,进行了多灾种地质灾害危险性综合分区评价。评价结果可直接用于城市地质灾害防治规划编制工作,为城市防灾减灾和防治工程的实施提供了科学依据。     

Percolation-theory and fuzzy rule-based probability estimation of fault leakage at geologic carbon sequestration sites

Leakage of CO₂ and displaced brine from geologic carbon sequestration (GCS) sites into potable groundwater or to the near-surface environment is a primary concern for safety and effectiveness of GCS. The focus of this study is on the estimation of the probability of CO₂ leakage along conduits such as faults and fractures. This probability is controlled by (1) the probability that the CO₂ plume encounters a conductive fault that could serve as a conduit for CO₂ to leak through the sealing formation, and (2) the probability that the conductive fault(s) intersected by the CO₂ plume are connected to other conductive faults in such a way that a connected flow path is formed to allow CO₂ to leak to environmental resources that may be impacted by leakage. This work is designed to fit into the certification framework for geological CO₂ storage, which represents vulnerable resources such as potable groundwater, health and safety, and the near-surface environment as discrete “compartments.” The method we propose for calculating the probability of the network of conduits intersecting the CO₂ plume and one or more compartments includes four steps: (1) assuming that a random network of conduits follows a power-law distribution, a critical conduit density is calculated based on percolation theory; for densities sufficiently smaller than this critical density, the leakage probability is zero; (2) for systems with a conduit density around or above the critical density, we perform a Monte Carlo simulation, generating realizations of conduit networks to determine the leakage probability of the CO₂ plume (P _leak) for different conduit length distributions, densities and CO₂ plume sizes; (3) from the results of Step 2, we construct fuzzy rules to relate P _leak to system characteristics such as system size, CO₂ plume size, and parameters describing conduit length distribution and uncertainty; (4) finally, we determine the CO₂ leakage probability for a given system using fuzzy rules. The method can be extended to apply to brine leakage risk by using the size of the pressure perturbation above some cut-off value as the effective plume size. The proposed method provides a quick way of estimating the probability of CO₂ or brine leaking into a compartment for evaluation of GCS leakage risk. In addition, the proposed method incorporates the uncertainty in the system parameters and provides the uncertainty range of the estimated probability.     

Quantitative assessment of benthic food resources for juvenile Gulf sturgeon,Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi in the Suwannee River estuary, Florida, USA

Gulf sturgeon,Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi, forage extensively in the Suwannee River estuary following emigration out of the Suwannee River, Florida. While in the estuary, juvenile Gulf sturgeon primarily feed on benthic infauna. In June–July 2002 and February–April 2003, random sites within the estuary were sampled for benthic macrofauna (2002 n = 156; 2003 n = 103). A mean abundance of 2,562 ind m⁻² (SE ± 204) was found in the summer, with significantly reduced macrofaunal abundance in the winter (mean density of 1,044 ind m⁻², SE ± 117). Benthic biomass was significantly higher in the summer with an average summer sample dry weight of 5.92 g m⁻² (SE ± 0.82) compared to 3.91 g m⁻² (SE ± 0.67) in the winter. Amphipods and polychaetes were the dominant taxa collected during both sampling periods. Three different estimates of food availability were examined taking into account principal food item information and biomass estimates. All three estimates provided a slightly different view of potential resources but were consistent in indicating that food resource values for juvenile Gulf sturgeon are spatially heterogeneous within the Suwannee River estuary.     

Overview of the potential of microalgae for CO2 sequestration

An economic and environmentally friendly approach of overcoming the problem of fossil CO₂ emissions would be to reuse it through fixation into biomass. Carbon dioxide (CO₂), which is the basis for the formation of complex sugars by green plants and microalgae through photosynthesis, has been shown to significantly increase the growth rates of certain microalgal species. Microalgae possess a greater capacity to fix CO₂ compared to C₄ plants. Selection of appropriate microalgal strains is based on the CO₂ fixation and tolerance capability together with lipid potential, both of which are a function of biomass productivity. Microalgae can be propagated in open raceway ponds or closed photobioreactors. Biological CO₂ fixation also depends on the tolerance of selected strains to high temperatures and the amount of CO₂ present in flue gas, together with SO_x and NO_x. Potential uses of microalgal biomass after sequestration could include biodiesel production, fodder for livestock, production of colorants and vitamins. This review summarizes commonly employed microalgal species as well as the physiological pathway involved in the biochemistry of CO₂ fixation. It also presents an outlook on microalgal propagation systems for CO₂ sequestration as well as a summary on the life cycle analysis of the process.     

碳中和愿景下森林碳汇评估方法和固碳潜力预估研究进展

碳中和愿景下,加强森林的固碳增汇功能是抵消和吸纳碳排放最经济和最有效的途径.精准评估森林碳汇和预估森林固碳潜力,有助于量化森林在应对气候变化和实现碳中和愿景中的贡献.然而,森林分布的广泛性、森林生态系统结构的复杂性以及评估数据的代表性不够和方法学的差异性,造成森林碳汇评估的结果普遍存在精度低、不确定性高的问题.在界定森...     

Treatment of uncertainties in the performance assessment of geologic high-level radioactive waste repositories

Federal regulations governing the disposal of high-level radioactive waste in deep, geologic repositories require an assessment of performance over thousands of years. Because of the long regulatory period involved and the complex nature of the events and processes of interest, prediction of the performance of the disposal system will inevitably include uncertainties. These uncertainties come from a variety of sources, and some are quantifiable and others are not. This paper discusses these uncertainties and outlines approaches for their treatment. Recommendations for the potential resolution of current limitations in the treatment of uncertainties in performance assessment are made. Some general issues, as well as a suggested approach for incorporating expert judgment into quantitative performance assessment analysis, are discussed also.This paper was presented (by title) at Emerging Concepts, MGUS-87 Conference, Redwood City, California, 13–15 April 1987.     

Hydrogeology of deep-well disposal of liquid wastes in southwestern Florida, USA

 Deep-well injection has been used to dispose of municipal liquid wastes in southwestern Florida since 1988. The liquid wastes are injected into an extremely high-transmissivity zone of fractured dolomite in the Early Eocene Oldsmar Formation of the Floridan aquifer system; this zone is commonly referred to as the Boulder Zone. Data collected during the drilling and operational testing of southwestern Florida injection wells provide insights into the nature of the injection zone and overlying confining beds. The location of high-transmissivity zones that are capable of accepting large quantities of waste water is vertically and horizontally variable and cannot be predicted with certainty. A 40.9-m thick high-permeability interval in one injection well, for example, was absent in a well drilled only 85.4 m away. Some upward migration of low-density injected fluids has occurred, but at no site were the injected liquids detected in deep monitor wells, such as occurred at injection-well sites along the coasts of southeastern, west-central, and east-central Florida. The primary confinement of the injected liquids (i.e., deepest effective confining beds) consists of unfractured beds of low-permeability dolomite within the Oldsmar Formation, whose locations are also laterally and vertically variable. The origin and controls of the distribution of fractures in the Oldsmar Formation are poorly understood. Received, December 1997 Revised, June 1998, August 1998 Accepted, August 1998     

通化盆地石油地质特征及油气资源潜力

通化盆地为发育在前中生代基底之上的断陷盆地,经历了古生代晚期的海西运动及中侏罗世晚期的燕山运动,目前勘探程度较低。对盆地石油地质条件研究表明,通化盆地早白垩世火山喷发期后沉积阶段形成的鹰嘴砬子组、下桦皮甸子组及亨通山组为盆地主要烃源岩层位。在三棵榆树凹陷和三源浦凹陷内,烃源岩条件较好,并且有良好的生储盖组合,可作为盆地下一步勘探重点。通过热解法计算通化盆地烃源岩有利分布区生烃量为3. 87 × 108 t,资源量为0. 302 × 108 t,具有一定的油气潜力。     

Reconstructing the migration patterns of late Pleistocene mammals from northern Florida, USA

We used analyses of the strontium isotope (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) ratios of tooth enamel to reconstruct the migration patterns of fossil mammals collected along the Aucilla River in northern Florida. Specimens date to the late-glacial period and before the last glacial maximum (pre-LGM). Deer and tapir displayed low ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios that were similar to the ratios of Florida environments, which suggest that these taxa did not migrate long distance outside of the Florida region. Mastodons, mammoths, and equids all displayed a wide range of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios. Some individuals in each taxon displayed low ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios that suggest they ranged locally, while other animals had high ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios that suggest they migrated long distances (> 150 km) outside of the Florida region. Mastodons were the only taxa from this region that provided enough well-dated specimens to compare changes in migration patterns over time. Pre-LGM mastodons displayed significantly lower ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios than late-glacial mastodons, which suggests that late-glacial mastodons from Florida migrated longer distances than their earlier counterparts. This change in movement patterns reflects temporal changes in regional vegetation patterns.     

地质英语的词汇特点探析

地质英语作为专门用途英语的一种,大量词汇受到了词义不统一的影响,形成了自己独特的词汇特征。本文在研究地质专业词汇的词源、定义、沿革的基础上,总结出地质英语的词汇特点,以促进地质英语的学习,进而实现地质领域内准确、顺畅的英语交流。     

Hydrologic fragmentation-induced eutrophication in Dove Sound,Upper Florida Keys,USA

Anthropogenic impacts to island systems can have deleterious effects on coastal aquatic ecosystems. These effects can alter water quality, primary production as well as habitat. Land development often fragments hydrologic connectivity within aquatic ecosystems forcing alterations in nutrient transport and increases the potential for eutrophication. Dove Sound, a tidal lagoon located in the Upper Florida Keys on Key Largo, has been subjected to anthropogenic influences of land development during the last century. To investigate these influences a short sediment core was collected from within Dove Sound and investigated using ²¹⁰Pb dating, stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen, and sedimentary pigments. Results indicated that Dove Sound has undergone eutrophication and the primary producer community structure has shifted from dominantly macrophytic to a system that supports substantial algal production. While septic waste was a possible source for eutrophication, low δ¹⁵N did not support this conclusion. However, the timing of the shifts in Dove Sound along with indicators of anoxia leads to the conclusion that fragmentation caused by the construction of a railroad was the root cause. The hydrologic fragmentation reduced the flushing rates, thereby enhancing anoxic conditions in the system and increasing the internal nutrient loading.