Drought characteristics of Henan province in 1961-2013 based on Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index

Drought is one of the most complex natural hazards affecting agriculture, water resources, natural ecosystems, and society. The negative societal consequences of drought include severe economic losses, famine, epidemics, and land degradation. However, few studies have analyzed the complexity of drought characteristics, both at multiple time scales and with variations in evapotranspiration. In this study, drought occurrences were quantified using a new drought index, the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), based on observed data of monthly mean temperature and precipitation from 1961 to 2013 in Henan province, central China. Based on the SPEI values of each weather station in the study, the frequency and severity of meteorological droughts were computed, and the monthly, seasonal, and annual drought frequency and intensity over a 53-year period were analyzed. The spatial and temporal evolution, intensity, and the primary causes of drought occurrence in Henan were revealed. The results showed that the SPEI values effectively reflected the spatial and temporal pattern of drought occurrence. As the time scale decreased, the amplitude of the SPEI increased and droughts became more frequent. Since 1961, drought has occurred at the annual, seasonal, and monthly scales, and the occurrence of drought has increased. However, regional distribution has been uneven. The highest drought frequency, 35%, was observed in the Zhoukou region, while the lowest value, ~26%, was measured in central and western Henan. The most severe droughts occurred in the spring and summer, followed by autumn. Annually, wide-ranging droughts occurred in 1966–1968, 1998–2000, and 2011–2013. The drought intensity showed higher values in north and west Henan, and lower values in its east and south. The maximum drought intensity value was recorded in Anyang, and the minimum occurred in Zhumadian, at 22.18% and 16.60%, respectively. The factors with the greatest influence on drought occurrence are increasing temperatures, the Eurasian atmospheric circulation patterns, and the El Niño effect.     

未来气候情景下我国北方地区干旱时空变化趋势

干旱是我国北方地区最为突出的环境问题。根据WCRP耦合模式输出的未来气候变化逐月资料,基于降水-蒸发力标准化干旱指数（SPEI）,分析了IPCC SRES A1B、A2和B1三种情景下,2011-2050年我国北方地区干旱状况的时空变化趋势。结果表明：中国北方地区未来40 a呈现干旱化倾向,其中轻度和中度季节性干旱发生频率降低,重度和极端季节性干旱发生频率增加,增温引起的地表蒸发增加是极端干旱频发的主要原因。A1B、B1和A2情景下,2040s整个北方地区极端干旱频率增加、强度增强、影响范围明显扩大。极端干旱的增加可能给农业生产带来风险,采取有效应对措施,将有利于区域农业的可持续发展。     

基于标准化降水指数的1960—2011年中国不同时间尺度干旱特征

利用1960—2011年中国566个气象站逐日降水资料,采用标准化降水指数对近52年中国的干旱特征进行了详细分析。结果表明：近52年来,中国存在一条由东北向西南延伸的干旱趋势带,东北、内蒙古中东部、华北、西北地区东部以及西南地区东部趋于干旱,而西北地区西部的北疆地区、青海中部以及西藏中北部等地呈显著变湿趋势;华北地区干旱化主要是夏季趋于干旱引起的,东北和西南地区的干旱化主要是夏、秋季趋于干旱引起的,西北地区东部和长江中下游地区主要是春、秋季趋于干旱。东北地区20世纪70年代和2000年后轻旱以上日数较多,60年代干旱日数最少;华北地区和西北地区东部90年代最多,60—80年代旱日较少;西南地区东部2000年后干旱日数最多,60—70年代较少;长江中下游地区60年代和21世纪后干旱日数偏多,80年代较少。60年代,易旱区主要位于西北地区中、西部以及长江中下游部分地区;70年代,西北西部和东北地区是干旱的高发区;80年代,易旱区位于华北、黄淮、内蒙古中西部以及西南东部等地;90年代,易旱区转移到中部,西北地区东南部、华北、黄淮、江淮以及江汉等地是干旱的高发区;进入21世纪后,东北、内蒙古东部、西北地区东部、西南东部以及长江中下游的部分地区干旱高发。     

1960-2016年黄土高原多尺度干旱特征及影响因素

明晰黄土高原干旱特征对于生态工程建设和社会经济可持续发展具有至关重要的作用。基于1960—2016年黄土高原59个气象台站数据和标准化降水蒸散指标（SPEI）,本文分析了黄土高原多尺度干旱时空变化特征,并探讨了遥相关指数对黄土高原干旱变化的影响。结果表明：① 黄土高原SPEI指数呈下降趋势,其中70年代初和90年代末为显著干旱时期,80—90年代初为较湿润时期;② 年尺度SPEI呈下降趋势的区域遍布整个黄土高原,以山西西部、宁夏北部和甘肃中东部最为显著,而黄土高原西北和西南部则表现为变湿趋势;③ 春、夏和秋三季SPEI均呈下降趋势,且夏、秋季下降趋势较大,趋势系数均为-0.03/10a。春季干旱趋势与年际变化较为一致,秋季干旱趋势范围较大,占总面积的64.53%,冬季干旱范围较小且不显著;④ 多尺度干旱同时受IOD、NAO、PDO、AMO和ENSO3.4等遥相关指数的共同影响,且该影响存在明显的年际和年代际相位转换特征。多元回归分析显示,IOD和NAO对黄土高原干旱解释率较高,分别为22.98%和12.23%,而ENSO3.4解释率较低,表明黄土高原降水变化与西南季风具有较好的关联性。     

基于标准化降水指数的中国冬季干旱分区及气候特征

利用中国614个气象台站1951—2006年历年月平均降水资料,计算各站的标准化降水指数及其干旱等级序列,采用REOF等方法进行气候分区,分析各区域近55 a干旱等级的时空变化,并着重讨论了黄淮—华北冬小麦种植区冬季干旱的大气环流特征。结果表明,我国冬季降水具有显著的年代际变化,西北的新疆地区,华北及黄淮地区自进入21世纪以来,冬季降水量增加十分明显,而西南,青藏高原及华南地区冬季降水量有所减少。根据标准化降水指数的旋转载荷向量可将中国划分为13个区域,其干旱等级序列和代表站资料反映出近55 a西北地区东部、河套及华北北部有变干的趋势,而新疆北部、东北北部、华北南部、江淮、江南地区降水量有增加的趋势。乌拉尔山—青藏高原脊、东亚大槽及西太平洋副高是影响北方冬麦区旱涝最主要的大气环流系统,其对分析、预测旱涝具有十分重要的指示意义。     

基于SPEI的中国东北地区1961-2014年干旱时空演变

利用中国东北地区84个气象站1961-2014年逐月气温、降水资料,采用标准化降水蒸散指数（SPEI）、气候倾向率及M-K统计检验方法,从不同时间尺度（年、季、月）探讨了东北地区干旱频率、干旱站次比和干旱强度的演变特征,研究了干旱指数与不同环流指数 （亚洲极涡面积指数I_APV、亚洲纬向环流指数I_AZC、东亚槽位置指数I_EAT、极地-欧亚遥相关型指数I_POL）的相关关系。结果表明：东北地区多年平均的干旱发生频率为26%～36%,不同等级干旱发生频次以重旱和特旱的增速最快。春、夏、秋三季干旱站次比和干旱强度都有所增强,其中秋旱变化最为显著,通过了0.95水平的显著性检验。从SPEI与各环流指数的相关来看,亚洲极涡面积指数与SPEI表现为全区一致的正相关关系,而其他3个指数与SPEI则表现出明显的反向变化。4个指数与SPEI的对应关系还存在明显的季节变化,其中亚洲极涡面积指数、亚洲纬向环流指数与SPEI在春、夏季的相关性更好,东亚槽位置指数、极地-欧亚遥相关型指数则是在秋、冬季与SPEI的相关性更显著。     

Attribution of trends in meteorological drought during 1960–2016 over the Loess Plateau,China

This study uses two forms of the Palmer Drought Severity Index(PDSI), namely the PDSI_TH(potential evapotranspiration estimated-by the Thornthwaite equation) and the PDSI_PM(potential evapotranspiration estimated by the FAO Penman-Monteith equation), to characterize the meteorological drought trends during 1960–2016 in the Loess Plateau(LP) and its four subregions. By designing a series of numerical experiments, we mainly investigated various climatic factors' contributions to the drought trends at annual, summer, and autumn time scales. Overall, the drying trend in the PDSI_TH is much larger than that in the PDSI_PM. The former is more sensitive to air temperature than precipitation, while the latter is the most sensitive to precipitation among all meteorological factors. Increasing temperature results in a decreasing trend(drying) in the PDSI_TH, which is further aggravated by decreasing precipitation, jointly leading to a relatively severe drying trend. For the PDSI_PM that considers more comprehensive climatic factors, the drying trend is partly counteracted by the declining wind speed and solar radiation. Therefore, the PDSI_PM ultimately shows a much smaller drying trend in the past decades.     

气候变暖背景下黄河流域干旱灾害风险空间特征

黄河流域是中国重要的经济带和经济增长极,也是人口密集暴露、特色农业种植和重点生态承载区。在全球变暖和极端降水事件频发的气候背景下,近年来黄河流域干旱灾害变化特征异常突出,新形势下该流域的干旱灾害风险及其对气候变化的响应机制需进一步深入认识。本文利用1960年以来黄河流域122个国家气象站逐日气象数据,结合遥感、社会统计和地理信息数据与技术,基于灾害风险理论,建立致灾因子危险性、孕灾环境脆弱性、承灾体易损性和防灾减灾能力可靠性4个因子的干旱灾害风险指标体系和模型,详细分析了黄河流域干旱灾害风险变化特征和区域差异性及其气候变化的影响机制。结果表明：黄河流域干旱灾害风险分布格局具有明显的地带性和复杂性,流域区域差异显著,总体是中下游风险高于上游,高风险区主要位于黄河流域中下游,致灾因子危险性是黄河流域干旱灾害风险的主导因子,其次是孕灾环境脆弱性和防灾减灾能力可靠性,而承灾体易损性贡献量相对最小。干旱灾害风险影响机制的区域差异也很显著,上游是孕灾环境脆弱性和防灾减灾能力可靠性的影响大于致灾因子和易损性,中游则是致灾因子、易损性和防灾减灾能力对干旱灾害风险的贡献度大,下游是干旱致灾因子起主导作用,致灾因子危险性和承灾体易损性控制了风险总体格局。黄河流域干旱灾害风险变化规律以及对气候变化的响应异常复杂,流域干旱灾害风险主要受季风气候和复杂地形的影响,还受社会经济发展水平、人口暴露度和水资源供需矛盾等多种要素的影响。该研究对黄河流域生态文明建设,粮食安全保障和国家发展战略具有重要意义。     

TMPA降水数据在澜沧江流域干旱监测中的评估(英文)

Drought is one of the most destructive disasters in the Lancang River Basin, which is an ungauged basin with strong heterogeneity on terrain and climate. Our validation suggested the version-6 monthly TRMM multi-satellite precipitation analysis (TMPA; 3B43 V.6) product during the period 1998 to 2009 is an alternative precipitation data source with good accuracy. By using the standard precipitation index (SPI), at the grid point (0.25°×0.25°) and sub-basin spatial scales, this work assessed the effectiveness of TMPA in drought monitoring during the period 1998 to 2009 at the 1-month scale and 3-months scale; validated the monitoring accuracy of TMPA for two severe droughts happened in 2006 and 2009, respectively. Some conclusions are drawn as follows. (1) At the grid point spatial scale, in comparison with the monitoring results between rain gauges (SPI1g) and TMPA grid (SPI1s), both agreed well at the 1-month scale for most of the grid points and those grid points with the lowest critical success index (CSI) are distributed in the middle stream of the Lancang River Basin. (2) The same as SPI1s, the consistency between SPI3s and SPI3g is good for most of the grid points at the 3-months scale, those grid points with the lowest were concentrated in the middle stream and downstream of the Lancang River Basin. (3) At the 1-month scale and 3-months scale, CSI ranged from 50% to 76% for most of the grid points, which demonstrated high accuracy of TMPA in drought monitoring. (4) At the 3-months scale, based on TMPA basin-wide precipitation estimates, though we tended to overestimate (underestimate) the peaks of dry or wet events, SPI3s detected successfully the occurrence of them over the five sub-basins at the most time and captured the occurrence and development of the two severe droughts happened in 2006 and 2009. This analysis shows that TMPA has the potential for drought monitoring in data-sparse regions.     

基于SPI指数的甘肃省河东地区干旱时空特征分析

干旱是西北地区主要的自然灾害之一。本文以甘肃省河东地区作为研究区,基于该地区38个气象站1971-2010年逐月降水数据计算标准化降水指数（SPI指数）,分析了不同时间尺度SPI指数的时间序列特征,探讨了SPI₃和SPI₁₂的年代际距平和倾向率的时空变化,以及特旱、重旱和中旱的发生频次。结果表明：（1）随着时间尺度的增加,SPI指数随机性在减弱,持续性在加强。干旱出现较多的时期为1991-2005年,出现较少的时期为1974-1982年。（2）20世纪80年代以前河东地区偏湿,90年代以后河东地区有偏干的趋势。河东地区行政区划分为7个部分,70-80年代,除甘南地区外,其余地区的SPI₃倾向率均显著增加;80-90年代,河东地区SPI₃倾向率持续减少,减少最明显的为定西地区;90年代到21世纪初,河东地区SPI₃倾向率又有增加趋势。对于SPI₁₂来说,自20世纪70年代到2010年,除甘南、陇南和天水地区的SPI₁₂倾向率为先减少后增加以外,其余地区均呈现先增加,后减小,然后再增加的趋势。（3）3个月时间尺度干旱的分布范围广,发生频次高,主要发生于河东地区的北部。12个月时间尺度的特旱主要发生在河东地区的北部,重旱和中旱主要发生在河东地区的东部。     

The influence of climate change on maize production in the semi-humid–semi-arid areas of Kenya

The effect of climate change on maize production in the semi-humid and semi-arid, agro-climatic zones III-IV of Kenya was evaluated using two General Circulation Models (GCMs): the Canadian Climate Center Model (CCCM) and the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), as well as the CERES-Maize model. Long-term climate data was obtained from three meteorological stations situated in eastern, central and western regions of Kenya, while maize data was obtained from six sites within the regions. The climate scenarios were projected to the year 2030. Temperature increases of 2·29 and 2·89°C are predicted by the CCCM and GFDL, respectively. Rainfall levels are predicted to remain unchanged, but there are thought to be shifts in distribution. It is predicted that the short-rains season (October–January) will experience some increased rainfall, while the long-rains season (April–July) will show a decrease. Maize yields are predicted to decrease in zone III areas, while an increase is predicted in zone IV areas. However, the predicted changes in yields are low since they all fall below 500 kg ha⁻¹, except the Homa Bay site. Thus, to counter the adverse effects of climate change on maize production, it may be necessary to use early maturing cultivars, practice early planting, and in eastern Kenya, shift to growing maize during the short-rains season.     

The dynamics of vulnerability: locating coping strategies in Kenya and Tanzania

We investigate how smallholder farmers at two sites in Kenya and Tanzania cope with climate stress and how constraints and opportunities shape variations in coping strategies between households and over time during a drought. On the basis of this analysis, we draw out implications for adaptation and adaptive policy. We find that households where an individual was able to specialize in one favoured activity, such as employment or charcoal burning, in the context of overall diversification by the household, were often less vulnerable than households where each individual is engaged in many activities at low intensity. Many households had limited access to the favoured coping options due to a lack of skill, labour and/or capital. This lack of access was compounded by social relations that led to exclusion of certain groups, especially women, from carrying out favoured activities with sufficient intensity. These households instead carried out a multitude of less favoured and frequently complementary activities, such as collecting indigenous fruit. While characterized by suitability to seasonal environmental variations and low demands on time and cash investments, these strategies often yielded marginal returns. Both the marginalization of local niche products and the commercialization of forest resources exemplify processes leading to differential vulnerability. We suggest that vulnerability can usefully be viewed in terms of the interaction of such processes, following the concept of locality. We argue that coping is a distinct component of vulnerability and that understanding the dynamism of coping and vulnerability is critical to developing adaptation measures that support people as active agents.     

基于标准化降水指数的陕西黄土高原地区1971—2010年干旱变化特征

利用陕西黄土高原地区68个气象站降水资料,选择标准化降水指数（SPI）为干旱指标,分析了该地区最近40年（1971—2010年）的月、季、年干旱特征,在此基础上利用经验正交函数(EOF)分解方法进行了干旱分区,并分析了全年及各季节干旱站次比和干旱强度的年际变化。结果表明:EOF分解第1、2、3特征向量分别反映了陕西黄土高原地区干旱的一致变化、南-北反向分布和中部-南北反向分布的不同特点;年度干旱站次比和干旱强度有明显的阶段性分布特点,在年代之间有重-轻-重-轻的变化趋势。2001年以来,年度和夏、秋、冬季干旱强度都有不同程度降低,春季干旱有增强趋势。陕北和关中地区的春季、夏季干旱变化趋势相反,秋季、冬季干旱变化趋势一致。地区平均每年出现干旱月3.8个,几乎每年都有干旱月出现,最多的一年可出现6—9个干旱月。     

Expansion of the northern hemisphere subtropical high pressure belt: trends and linkages to precipitation and drought

A critical issue in research concerning long-term climate change is the relationship between circulation features and global temperature variations. We establish that the annual areal size of the northern hemisphere subtropical high pressure belt (SHPB), as defined by seven 500-hPa height isohypses, shares over 70% of the variability with global annual near-surface air temperature since 1948. The area enclosed by the 5850-m isohypse of the 500-hPa surface in the northern hemisphere has more than doubled since the 1950s, with greatest increases over northern Africa, the Middle East and India. A long-term historical run of a coupled global climate model shows rapidly increasing SHPB annual sizes, since the mid-1970s. Since the SHPB’s descending air produces increased aridity, SHPB expansion may transition humid regions to more arid lands. To examine this aspect, first, variations in recorded precipitation using a gridded database for the region experiencing expansion of the SHPB show a decrease in precipitation (though significant only at the 88% confidence level) over the last 60?years. Second, variations in a 0.5° spatial resolution monthly drought index, the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index, are highly correlated (+0.78) with annual variations in the area enclosed by the 500-hPa height isohypses. These results support those of previous investigations that suggest further northward expansion of the northern hemisphere subtropical dry zones with continued global climate change.     

印度河流域气温、降水、蒸发及干旱变化特征

基于印度河流域及周围54个地面气象站气温、降水资料,结合CRU气温和GPCC降水全球格点化陆面再分析资料,通过插值构建了一套0.5°×0.5°分辨率1980—2016年逐月格点数据集。采用Thornthwaite方法计算了潜在蒸散发,基于标准化降水蒸散指数(SPEI),探讨了印度河流域气候变化及干旱演变特征。结果表明:(1)1980—2016年,印度河流域年平均气温以0.30℃·(10 a)^-1的速率呈显著上升趋势,21世纪初增温幅度最大;干季(11月～次年4月)升温速率较快,达0.36℃·(10 a)^-1,湿季(5～10月)增速0.25℃·(10 a)^-1。年降水量呈现少雨—多雨—少雨—多雨年代际振荡。伴随着持续升温,年和各季的潜在蒸发量增加显著。干季干旱频率较多,但湿季干旱强度高,各季干旱频率与降水呈现较一致的年代际波动;干旱的影响面积在干季呈现微弱地增加趋势,湿季却略有减少趋势。(2)空间上,除西北局部,流域其他区域的年和季平均气温、潜在蒸发量增加趋势显著,均达到95%置信水平。其中南部平原和东北山区升温幅度较高,...     

阿克苏河流域气候变化对潜在蒸散量影响分析

蒸散发是水文过程的关键环节,研究气候因子对潜在蒸散发的影响,有助于深入认识水文过程对气候变化的响应。本文基于阿克苏河流域1960-2007 年逐日气象资料和Penman-Monteith公式,估算并分析参考作物蒸散量(RET) 时空变化特征,并用多元回归方法定量区分气候因子变化对RET 变化的贡献率。研究发现流域RET 空间差异明显,东部平原区平均年RET 为1100mm左右,是西部山区的近2 倍;东南部绿洲区的RET显著减少,而西部变化复杂。RET变化趋势的季节差异也很显著,以夏季变幅最大,是年变化的主要贡献者。高海拔地区相对湿度对RET变化影响最大,其它区域的风速变化对RET变化的贡献率最高。库车和乌恰站的风速变化对RET变化的贡献率大于50%,是RET变化的主导因素。     

新疆叶尔羌河流域温度与降水序列的小波分析

利用1961—2006年叶尔羌河流域7个气象站点的气温和降水系列资料,采用Morlet小波函数,分析了不同时间尺度下气温和降水序列变化的周期和突变点,确定了各序列中存在的主周期。结果表明：该流域暖湿化趋势比较明显,气温和降水的变化趋势与西北地区和新疆区的气候变化基本一致;小尺度的变化嵌套在较大尺度的复杂背景之中,不同时间尺度下突变的年份有所差异。     

Meteorological and Streamflow Droughts: Characteristics,Trends, and Propagation in the Milwaukee River Basin

This study examined meteorological and streamflow droughts for the period from 1951 to 2006 using the Milwaukee River basin in Wisconsin as the study area in an effort to improve the understanding of drought propagation. Specifically, this study aimed to answer the following research questions: (1) What are the temporal trends of meteorological and streamflow droughts identified by drought indicators? (2) How do the drought indicators manifest drought propagation? Meteorological droughts were identified using the Effective Drought Index (EDI), and streamflow droughts were identified using a threshold-level approach. The intensity and duration of both types of drought were found to have decreased over time, most likely due to increasing precipitation. Therefore, in the study area, and likely in the larger region, drought has become of less concern. The propagation of meteorological drought into streamflow drought was detected generally after moderate and severe sequences of negative EDI that eventually led to extreme meteorological drought events. The study finds that both EDI and the threshold-level approach are effective in diagnosing meteorological and streamflow drought events of all durations.     

基于GLDAS-Noah模型的闽江流域实际蒸散发评估

以亚热带季风区的典型流域——闽江流域为研究区域,根据Penman-Monteith（P-M）公式和双作物系数法,计算了闽江流域内8个气象观测站点的实际蒸散量,并评估了GLDAS-Noah实际蒸散产品在闽江流域的适用性。在此基础上,基于GLDAS-Noah实际蒸散发数据,解读了2000—2019年闽江流域的实际蒸散量的变化特征。结果表明：① GLDAS-Noah实际蒸散发数据在闽江流域的适用性较好(R²>0.9,NSE>0.8);② 2000年以来闽江流域的实际蒸散发呈增加趋势（3.86 mm/a,P < 0.01）,且存在显著的季节差异,表现为冬季和春季的增加速率要大于夏季和秋季;③ 闽江流域冬季和春季蒸散发增加与气温密切相关,冬季蒸散发与冬季气温呈微弱正相关（ R = 0.27）,春季蒸散发的增加与春季升温密切相关（R = 0.79）。