Return migration and the reiteration of gender norms in water management politics: Insights from a Chinese village

Recent work on return migration in China suggests return migrants bring with them new knowledge, skills, and potentially beneficial relationships accumulated during their sojourns, enabling them to introduce new forms of leadership and community action. Social remittances of this kind could be read as carrying the potential to enhance collective action in support of sustainable local natural resource-based livelihoods. This study of the links between return migration, leadership and collective action in water management sounds a more cautionary note, demonstrating that home communities may respond to return migrants in ways that repeatedly mark and reiterate gender and kinship norms, reiterating gender, generational and clan-based social hierarchies. The paper draws on and contributes to recent feminist political ecology approaches to show how migrant returnees’ ’social remittances’ translate into leadership in collective action in a rural Chinese village in ways that reinforce existing gender hierarchies and social positions within the community, thus questioning the extent to which any influx of new ideas, relationships and practices acquired from migrant experiences necessarily destabilizes power and authority in the village in any meaningful way.     

Mineralogical relations and magma mixing in calc-alkaline andesites from lake Atitlán,Guatemala

Summary Quaternary calc-alkaline andesites erupted form three neighboring volcanoes along the Guatemalan volcanic front have mineralogic compositions and textures which show varying degrees of disequilibrium. Basaltic andesites and andesites (SiO₂ % = 50–59), erupted from Atitlán volcano located nearer to the trench, have the lowest degree of disequilibrium. These lavas contain an anhydrous phenocryst assemblage of mildly bimodal plagioclase, olivine, augite opx, and magnetite. Orthopyroxene occurs at the expense of olivine with increasing whole rock SiO₂. Most pyroxene phenocrysts show a trend of Fe enrichment.Andesites from Tolimán (SiO₂% = 53–62) and San Pedro (Si0₂% = 54–67) volcanoes, located further away from the trench, show comparatively high and moderate degrees of disequilibrium, respectively. Tolimán andesites have bimodal plagioclase compositions and textures. Olivine persists with increasing whole rock Si0₂ and lacks clear modal relations with coexisting orthopyroxene and hornblende phenocrysts. When compared to Atitlán andesites, Toliman olivines are more forsteritic and pyroxenes contain higher proportions of Mg-rich rims, though normal zoned phenocrysts occur within the same rock. Tolimán andesite also have lower proportions of phenocrysts to microphenocrysts, more calcic plagioclase groundmass compositions, and higher modal phenocrystic magnetite. San Pedro andesites have disequilibrium assemblages similar to Tolimán andesites but are not as striking.Magma mixing is proposed as the dominant cause for observed disequilibrium. Disequilibrium features are preserved best in Tolimán and San Pedro andesites because inferred durations between mixing and eruption are shortest, and consequently, these mixed andesites more clearly record mafic and silicic endmember compositions. The mafic component is a relatively high temperature, high-Al basalt containing phenocrysts of Mg-rich olivine (Fo = 78–80), calcic plagioclase (An 70–80), augite and titanomagnetite. The silicic component contains quartz, sodic plagioclase (An 40–50), Fe-rich orthopyroxene and titanomagnetite. Short durations between mixing and eruption produce petrographic features which, in part, mimic the effects of increasing PH₂0 in a fractionating magma. Inferred mixing durations for Atitlánn andesites are longer and involve a less-silicic composition. The intervolcano disequilibrium relations suggest that as Si0₂ in a silicic endmember increases, the duration and efficiency of mixing decreases.

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Mineral-Reaktionen und Magma-Mixing in Kalk-Alkali-Andesiten vom Atitlan See, Guatemala

Zusammenfassung Quartäre Kalk-Alkali-Andesite von drei benachbarten Vulkanen aus dem Guatemala Vulkan-Gürtel zeigen anhand ihrer mineralogischen Zusammensetzung und ihrer Textur variierende Bedingungen des Ungleichgewichts. Basalt-Andesite und Andesite (SiO₂% = 50–59), die aus dem dem Trench am nächsten gelegenen Vulkan Atitlan eruptierten, lassen den niedrigsten Grad an Ungleichgewicht erkennen. Diese Laven führen eine Phenokristall-Assoziation bestehend aus leicht bimodalem Plagioklas, Olivin, Augit, Orthopyroxen und Magnetit. In Gesteinen mit steigendem GesamtgesteinsSiO₂, tritt Orthopyroxen auf Kosten des Olivins auf. Die meisten Pyroxene zeigen einen Trend zur Fe-Anreicherung. Andesite vom Toliman (Si0₂% = 53–62) und vom Vulkan San Pedro (Si0₂% = 54-67), die beide weiter vom Trench entfernt liegen, zeigen hohen bzw. mittleren Grad an Ungleichgewicht. Die Toliman Andesite sind durch bimodale Zusammensetzung der Plagioklase und Textur gekennzeichnet. Olivin bleibt auch bei steigendem SiO₂-Gehalt bestehen, und zeigt hinsichlich seiner Zusammensetzung keine Verbindung mit koexistierenden Phenokristallen von Orthopyroxen und Hornblende. Im Vergleich zu den Atitlan Andesiten, weisen Toliman Olivine höheren Forsteritgehalt auf, die Pyroxene zeigen häufiger Mg-reiche Ränder, obwohl normal zonierte Phenokristalle auch im selben Gestein auftreten. Die Toliman Andesite sind durch ein kleineres Verhältnis von Phenokristalle/Mikrophenokristalle, höheren Ca-Gehalt der Matrix-Plagioklase und höheren Gehalt an Magnetit-Phenokristallen gekennzeichnet. Die San Pedro Andesite zeigen Ungleichgewichts-Paragenesen vergleichbar mit denen der Toliman Andesite, jedoch nicht so auffallend. Es ist zu vermuten, da\ Magma-Mixing vorwiegend für die UngleichgewichtsParagenesen verantwortlich ist. Die Toliman- und San Pedro Andesite zeigen die best erhaltenen Anzeichen für Ungleichgewicht, da vermutlich der Zeitraum zwischen Magma-Mixing und Eruption am kürzesten gewesen ist, weshalb diese Andesite die gemischten mafischen bzw. salischen Endglieder am besten widerspiegeln. Das mafische Endglied ist ein Al-reicher Hoch-Temperatur-Basalt, der sich aus Phenokristallen von Mg-reichem Olivin (Fo = 78–80), Ca-reichem Plagioklas (An 70–80), Fe-reichem Orthopyroxen und Titanomagnetit zusammensetzt. Das salische Endglied besteht aus Quarz, Na-reichem Plagioklas (An 40–50), Fe-reichem Orthopyroxen und Titanomagnetit. Aufgrund des kurzen Zeitabstandes zwischen Magma-Mixing und Eruption entstehen petrographische Strukturen, die den Effekt von steigendem PH₂0 in einem fraktionierenden Magma widerspiegeln. Es wird vermutet, da\ bei den Atitlan-Andesiten mehr Zeit zwischen Mixing und Eruption vergangen ist; dies manifestiert sich in einem geringeren Anteil der salischen Komponente. Die Zusammenhänge der Ungleichgewichts-Bedingungen innerhalb eines Vulkans lassen vermuten, daß die Dauer und Intensität des Mixing mit zunehmender salischer Komponente abnimmt.

     

Hornblende- and Phlogopite-Bearing Gabbroic Xenoliths from Volcan San Pedro (36{degrees}S), Chilean Andes: Evidence for Melt and Fluid Migration and Reactions in Subduction-Related Plutons

Two groups of gabbroic xenoliths (I and II) containing largeproportions of late-crystallized hornblende (up to 50 vol. %)and Na-rich phlogopite (up to 15 vol. %), were brought to thesurface by a late Holocene eruption of Volcán San Pedro,the youngest edifice of the Tatara–San Pedro VolcanicComplex (36°S, Chilean Andes). Group I are inferred to befragments of partially solidified Holocene plutons because theycontain residual interstitial glass, whereas exsolution anddeformation textures in Group II indicate that they are fragmentsof pre-Quaternary plutonic basement. On the basis of texturalrelations plus the mineral and whole-rock compositions of bothgroups of xenoliths, we suggest that hornblende and phlogopitewith high mg-numbers and Cr contents have formed by reactionsbetween refractory cumulus minerals (olivine, Cr-spinel, pyroxenesor plagioclase) and evolved melts ± aqueous fluids thatmigrated through partly solidified crystalline frameworks. Thus,the hydrous minerals are not early-crystallized phases in thebasaltic magmas from which the cumulus minerals precipitated.The high proportions of hornblende in many subduction-relatedgabbroic plutons and xenolith suites compared with its paucityin basaltic or basaltic andesitic lavas may be partially explainedby multistage plutonic crystallization histories involving reactionand migration of evolved melt ± aqueous fluids that eithercould have originated within the cumulus pile of the mafic intrusionor were derived externally, from broadly contemporaneous felsicmagmas. KEY WORDS: Tatara–San Pedro; gabbroic xenolith; hornblende; phlogopite; melt migration     

The real country and the legal country: Spanish Ideals and mayan realities in colonial Guatemala

Conquest by imperial Spain forced the Maya of Guatemala to contend with a dizzying array of European values and culturally-impregnated modes of geographic thought. Fundamentally different notions of where and how to live were thrust upon Maya communities by the policy of resettlement known as congregación. Imperial legislation evokes a utopian existence nowhere attained in the realm of actual practice. Archival documents, many of them penned by disenchanted clergy and concerned Crown officials, portray a lived experience quite unlike that enshrined in decrees and ordinances, edicts and commands. For the colonial Maya, as for natives throughout the Americas, the geography of everyday life bore little resemblance to the idealized arrangements of people in place promoted by imperial rhetoric.     

Raw hides: Hegemony and cattle in Guatemala’s northern lowlands

As a microcosm of the global livestock-climate problem, this tale of two hegemonies explores how and why two critical constituencies—development planners and conservation professionals—have failed to see the “raw hides” of cattle’s impact on the Maya Biosphere Reserve in northern Guatemala. Based on ethnographic research carried out between 1993 and 2007, this paper seeks to explain the idealization, persistence, and normalization of cattle as a land use in Petén from the colonial period to the present. Framed with a Gramscian analysis of the critical role of organic intellectuals in catalyzing social change, I explore the mental feedback loops reinforcing other social and environmental causes of land degradation in this region. After presenting data on the historical expansion of cattle into the Guatemalan lowlands through government colonization programs, I describe how multilateral lending agencies like the World Bank continue to corral development plans in the region. The next part of the paper explores the complex and ambiguous relations between conservation professionals and the ranching sector. I then conclude with a discussion of how global trade and infrastructure projects such as the Puebla to Panama Plan and the Central America Free Trade Agreement will further mask the hegemonic hides of cattle.     

Evolution of Holocene Dacite and Compositionally Zoned Magma, Volcan San Pedro, Southern Volcanic Zone, Chile

Volcán San Pedro in the Andean Southern Volcanic Zone(SVZ) Chile, comprises Holocene basaltic to dacitic lavas withtrace element and strontium isotope ratios more variable thanthose of most Pleistocene lavas of the underlying Tatara–SanPedro complex. Older Holocene activity built a composite coneof basaltic andesitic and silicic andesitic lavas with traceelement ratios distinct from those of younger lavas. Collapseof the ancestral volcano triggered the Younger Holocene eruptivephase including a sequence of lava flows zoned from high-K calc-alkalinehornblende–biotite dacite to two-pyroxene andesite. Notably,hornblende–phlogopite gabbroic xenoliths in the daciticlava have relatively low ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios identical to theirhost, whereas abundant quenched basaltic inclusions are moreradiogenic than any silicic lava. The latest volcanism rebuiltthe modern 3621 m high summit cone from basaltic andesite thatis also more radiogenic than the dacitic lavas. We propose thefollowing model for the zoned magma: (1) generation of hornblende–biotitedacite by dehydration partial melting of phlogopite-bearingrock similar to the gabbroic xenoliths; (2) forceful intrusionof basaltic magma into the dacite, producing quenched basalticinclusions and dispersion of olivine and plagioclase xenocryststhroughout the dacite; (3) cooling and crystallization–differentiationof the basalt to basaltic andesite; (4) mixing of the basalticandesite with dacite to form a small volume of two-pyroxenehybrid andesite. The modern volcano comprises basaltic andesitethat developed independently from the zoned magma reservoir.Evolution of dacitic and andesitic magma during the Holoceneand over the past 350 kyr reflects the intrusion of multiplemafic magmas that on occasion partially melted or assimilatedhydrous gabbro within the shallow crust. The chemical and isotopiczoning of Holocene magma at Volcán San Pedro is paralleledby that of historically erupted magma at neighboring VolcánQuizapu. Consequently, the role of young, unradiogenic hydrousgabbro in generating dacite and contaminating basalt may beunderappreciated in the SVZ. KEY WORDS: Andes; dacite; gabbro; Holocene; strontium isotopes     

Petrological and Experimental Constraints on the Pre-eruption Conditions of Holocene Dacite from Volcan San Pedro (36{degrees}S, Chilean Andes) and the Importance of Sulphur in Silicic Subduction-related Magmas

We present an experimental and petrological study aimed at estimatingthe pre-eruptive conditions of a Holocene dacitic lava fromVolcán San Pedro (36°S, Chilean Andes). Phase-equilibriumexperiments were performed at temperatures (T) from 800 to 950°C,and mainly at 200 MPa, but also at 55, 150, and 406 MPa. Oxygenfugacity (fO₂) ranged from the Ni–NiO buffer (NNO) to3·5 log units above (NNO + 3·5), and water contentsfrom     

Zur Geologie der nordchilenischen Kordilleren

Zusammenfassung Die Arbeit enthält Ergebnisse von Geländeuntersuchungen in den nordchilenischen Kordilleren. In dem geologisch wenig bekannten Raum der Provinzen Atacama und Antofagasta wurden neue stratigraphische Tatsachen entdeckt, u. a. in der Küstenkordillere ein über 1000 m mächtiges Paläozoikum und eine Lias-Transgression, sowie in der Hochkordillere ausgedehnte Vorkommen präkambrischer Gneise und Glimmerschiefer und Lias mit reicher Fossilführung.Die seit der Trias geförderten Ergußgesteine und die Rolle des mittelkretazischen Andenplutons werden geschildert. Ferner wird auf die Beziehungen zwischen magmatischen und tektonischen Ereignissen in Nordchile eingegangen.Der Bau der Küstenkordillere seit der Trias wird vorwiegend von Bruchverformung geprägt. Faltung ist fast ausschließlich auf prämesozoische Serien beschränkt. Die Platznahme des Andenplutons in der Mittelkreide kann hier mit keiner Faltungsphase in Verbindung gebracht werden. Die Faltungsintensität in der Hochkordillere ist zwar stärker, wirklich alpinotype Verformungen werden jedoch selten erreicht.

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Resumen En este trabajo se da una visión general sobre estudios geológicos realizados en la cordillera del norte de Chile, entre los 22 y 26 grados de latidud sur. Estos estudios los realizó el autor en el año 1956, en calidad de huésped de la Universidad de Chile.En la Cordillera de la Costa entre Chañaral y Taltal, y en un perfil por la Cordillera al Este de Vallenar, pude comprobar una serie de novedades en el campo de la estratigrafía.En la Cordillera de la Costa, aflora una potente serie paleozóica (1000 m de potencia), probablemente Silúrico Superior o Devónico, la que se muestra intensamente plegada. Por otra parte pude datar como perteneciendo al Paleozóico una transgresión liásica entre Bahia Cifuncho y Las Bombas.En la Alta Cordillera, al Sur-Este de El Transita, existen espesores considerables de gneises y esquistos precámbricos. En la quebrada de Pinto y quebrada Chanchoquin, afloran sedimentos de la parte alta del Liásico inferior y Liásico medio, los que son muy fosiliferos. Dentro de los sedimentos liásicos se depositaron concordantemente coladas de porfiritas. También aparecen volcanitas postliásicas.Pudieron determinarse dos generaciones de roca plutónica: una vieja, compuesta principalmente de material diorítico que muestra ordenación de petrofabric, y una intrusión mas moderna compuesta de granito fresco no deformado. Este material está claramente intruido en la formación porfirítica en el valle del rio El Carmen entre el Alto del Carmen y San Félix. Es probable que este granito sea más jóven que el batolito mesocrétácico de la Cordillera de la Costa.Finalmente se discuten las relaciones entre procesos tectónicos y magmáticos en las Cordilleras del norte de Chile. Diversos croquis y figuras ilustran los puntos tratados.Por la ayuda prestada en la preparación de los trabajos de campo, le agradezco al Señor Jorge MuñozCrsti, Director del Instituto de Geología de la Universidad de Chile. En los trabajos de campo me asistió el Ingeniero SeñorAntonio Pena.

     

Refining the age of magmatism in the Altos Cuchumatanes,western Guatemala,by LA–ICPMS,and tectonic implications

The Altos Cuchumatanes Range is made up of a core of igneous and metamorphic rocks, surrounded by lower Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary strata. These units constitute the westernmost exposure of basement rocks in Guatemala and represent some of the most important crustal units in the Maya Block. New laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry U-Pb zircon geochronology allows better definition of their igneous ages, inheritance and petrologic evolution. The Altos Cuchumatanes magmatism occurred during the Middle Ordovician (461 Ma) and lower Pennsylvanian (312–317 Ma), replicating similar age trends present in southern Mexico (Acatlán Complex) and the Maya Block, from Chiapas to central Guatemala (Rabinal-Salamá area) and Belize (Maya Mountains). The U-Pb inheritance from cores of the studied zircons makes it possible to decipher the pre-magmatic history of the area. During the Late Ordovician to Permo-Carboniferous, the Altos Cuchumatanes and Maya Block were located adjacent to northeastern Mexico, near the Mixteco terrane, where Ordovician megacrystic granites intruded a passive-margin sedimentary sequence. The Ordovician granites present at the southern limit of the Maya Block, in the Altos Cuchumatanes, in central Guatemala and in Belize, are the result of partial crustal melting during the initial opening of the Rheic Ocean, when both Maya and Mixteco terranes would have lain close to NW Gondwana until the closure of that ocean. The crystallization of the early Pennsylvanian granites seems to be the result of an E-dipping subduction zone that accommodated convergence between Laurentia and Gondwana.     

Radionuclides transport at the site of a low- and intermediate-level waste repository,Saligny, Romania

The site of the future Saligny low- and intermediate-level waste repository presents a rather deep unsaturated zone consisting of a pile of loess and clay, underlain by a calcareous aquifer. Van Genuchten parameters were first estimated in laboratory on samples collected from all the horizons, at different depths. In a second kind of test, moisture parameters were estimated from the natural water content profiles, observed in some wells, by inversion of the unsaturated flow equation. Based on the solution of the inverse problem as well as of the sensitivity analyses a simple physical model of the vadose zone was determined, consisting of a layered sequence that was subjected to a constant infiltration flux. Radionuclide migration was simulated in a vertical cross section made along the most probable path from the repository towards the surface water discharge zone. For radionuclide release, a source term was evaluated by ensuring a conservative estimate of cell inventory during the cell-filling operation. According to the simulation results, for the medium half-life nuclides, the unsaturated zone is a perfect barrier, whereas the long half-life isotopes break through in the aquifer at significant concentrations.

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Resumen El sitio del futuro repositorio para desechos de nivel bajo e intermedio, denominado Saligny, presenta una zona no saturada bastante profunda, consistente en un depósito de loess y arcilla, subyacido por un acuífero calcáreo. Los parámetros de Van Genuchten se estimaron por primera vez en laboratorio, a partir de muestras recolectadas de todos los horizontes, a diferentes profundidades. En un segundo tipo de prueba se estimaron los parámetros de humedad a través de la inversión de la ecuación de flujo no saturado, a partir de los perfiles naturales que contienen agua, observados en algunos pozos. Con base en la solución del problema inverso, así como también en análisis de sensibilidad, se determinó un modelo físico simple de la zona vadosa, el cual consiste de una secuencia estratificada sometida a un flujo de infiltración constante. La migración del radioisótopo fue simulada en una sección vertical, hecha a lo largo del camino más probable entre el repositorio y la zona de descarga en el agua superficial. Para la liberación del radioisótopo se evaluó la fuente, asegurando un estimativo conservador del inventario de celdas durante la operación de llenado de celdas. De acuerdo con los resultados de la simulación, para los isótopos con vida media intermedia, la zona no saturada es una barrera perfecta; mientras que los isótopos con vida media larga irrumpen en el acuífero con concentraciones importantes.

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Résumé Le futur stockage de déchets radioactifs de faible et moyenne activité de Saligny est caractérisé par une zone non-saturée assez profonde qui consiste dans des dépôts de loess et dargile qui couvrent un aquifère calcaire. Dans une première étape, les paramètres de van Genuchten ont été déterminés en laboratoires sur des échantillons prélevés de toutes les couches, à des profondeurs différentes. Dans une seconde étape les mêmes paramètres ont été estimés, comme un solution du problème inverse à partir de profils de la saturation en eau, mesurés dans des forages. Les résultats du problème inverse, ainsi que l› analyse de sensibilité ont mené à un modèle multi- couches de la zone non-saturé, rechargé par un flux constant. On a simulé le transport des radionucléides dans une coupe verticale, construite au long du trajet le plus probable entre le stockage et les eaux de surface. Le flux de radionucléides relâchés a été estimé en considérant une valeur consevative pour la masse totale stocké. D› après les résultats de la simulation la zone non saturée forme une barrière presque parfaite pour les radionucléides de période moyenne, denvirons de 30 ans, tendis quelle est traversée avec des concentrations assez importantes par des isotopes à grande période.

     

Basic magmas in the early evolution of the Southernmost Patagonian Batholith,Chile

Basic magmas played an important role in the early evolution of a segment of the Patagonian Batholith (141 to 34 m.y.) exposed south of Tierra del Fuego, Chile. The basic magmatism lasted 40 m.y. to possibly 60 m.y. (141 to 84 m.y.). It is represented by early gabbros and hornblendites (141 to 103 m.y.) and by synplutonic dikes and some of the numerous basic inclusions in the granitoids of a Cretaceous (113 to 84 m.y.) plutonic group. Some of the inclusions are interpreted as the disrupted portions of synplutonic dikes.Available data indicate that basaltic to rhyolitic volcanism which took place in the area during the Early Cretaceous was contemporaneous with the basic magmatism reported here and during its latest stage, with granitoid magmas. Therefore, gabbros apparently formed part of the roots of the island arc during the early stages of its evolution, whilst granitoids may have had a greater participation at a later stage in the root system.

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Zusammenfassung Basische Magmen spielten eine bedeutende Rolle bei der frühen Entwicklung eines Abschnittes des Patagonischen Batholithen (141-34 Mio. J.), der südlich Tierra del Fuego, Chile, aufgeschlossen ist. Der basische Magmatismus dauerte 40 bis etwa 60 Millionen Jahre (141-84 Mio. J.). Er besteht aus frühen Gabbros und Hornblenditen (141-103 Mio. J.) und aus synplutonischen Gängen und einigen der zahlreichen basischen Einschlüsse in dem Granitkomplex der kretazischen Plutonit-Gruppe (113-84 Mio. J.). Einige der Einschlüsse werden als isolierte Anteile von synplutonischen Gängen gedeutet.Die zur Verfügung stehenden Daten belegen, daß der basaltische bis rhyolitische Vulkanismus, der sich in diesem Gebiet während der frühen Kreide ereignete, gleichzeitig mit dem hier vorgestellten basischen Magmatismus und in dessen letztem Stadium zusammen mit granitischen Magmen ereignete. Daher waren offensichtlich Gabbros an den Wurzeln des Inselbogens während der frühen Entwicklungsstadien beteiligt, während Granotioide mit größerem Anteil an dem späterem Stadium des Wurzelsystems beteiligt waren.

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Resumen Magmas básicos tuvieron un importante rol en la historia temprana del segmento del Batolito Patagónico (141 a 34 M a) que se expone al sur de Tierra del Fuego, Chile. El magmatismo básico tuvo una duración de unos 40 Ma y hasta unos 60 Ma (141 a 84 Ma). Este magmatismo está representado por gabros y hornblenditas (141 a 103 Ma), por diques sinplutónicos y por algunas de las numerosas inclusiones básicas en los granitoides pertenecientes a un grupo plutónico del Cretácico (113 a 84 Ma). Algunas de las inclusiones se interpretan como partes de diques sinplutónicos.La información existente permite indicar que el volcanismo basáltico y riolítico que tuvo lugar en la región, durante el Cretácico Inferior, fue contemporáneo con el magmatismo básico del que se informa en este artículo. Aparentemente, la etapa final de este volcanismo habría sido coetáneo con un importante magmatismo granítico. En consecuencia, aparentemente, en las etapas iniciales de la evolución de la cadena volcánica, los gabros habrían constituído parte de su raíz, mientras que posteriormente habría habido mayor participación de granitoides.

     

Irregular migration,informal remittances: evidence from Ethiopian villages

Although Ethiopia has seen a reduction in refugee flows over the past decade, documented and undocumented labour migration has significantly increased. International migration has changed from that born out of conflict to irregular migration mainly driven by economic reasons. The source of migrants has expanded from urban centres to include rural areas, making them an important source of low-skilled labour for the international labour market. Based on a qualitative study, this paper explores the process and pattern of Ethiopian migration to South Africa, an emerging destination in the global South. This migration corridor is increasingly characterised by its irregularity. The paper also reflects how migration patterns shape the pattern of remittance flow, along with the way in which migrants and their networks substitute the function of financial institutions engaged in the remittance industry. It also highlights the features of remittances utilisation in emerging rural migrant community in Southern Ethiopia.     

A late Holocene paleoenvironmental reconstruction from Agua Caliente,southern Belize,linked to regional climate variability and cultural change at the Maya polity of Uxbenká

We report high-resolution macroscopic charcoal, pollen and sedimentological data for Agua Caliente, a freshwater lagoon located in southern Belize, and infer a late Holocene record of human land-use/climate interactions for the nearby prehistoric Maya center of Uxbenká. Land-use activities spanning the initial clearance of forests for agriculture through the drought-linked Maya collapse and continuing into the historic recolonization of the region are all reflected in the record. Human land alteration in association with swidden agriculture is evident early in the record during the Middle Preclassic starting ca. 2600 cal yr BP. Fire slowly tapered off during the Late and Terminal Classic, consistent with the gradual political demise and depopulation of the Uxbenká polity sometime between ca. 1150 and 950 cal yr BP, during a period of multiple droughts evident in a nearby speleothem record. Fire activity was at its lowest during the Maya Postclassic ca. 950–430 cal yr BP, but rose consistent with increasing recolonization of the region between ca. 430 cal yr BP and present. These data suggest that this environmental record provides both a proxy for 2800 years of cultural change, including colonization, growth, decline, and reorganization of regional populations, and an independent confirmation of recent paleoclimate reconstructions from the same region.     

Relationships between hydraulic conductivity distribution and synsedimentary faults,Rharb-Mamora basin,Morocco; Hydrogeological,geostatistical and modeling approaches

This paper deals with the relationship between the physical characteristics of the Rharb-Mamora basin (Northern Morocco) and the distribution of hydraulic conductivity values in the Plio-Quaternary aquifer. A steady state groundwater model has been calibrated using these values. The distribution of hydraulic conductivity corresponds to a hydrodynamic partition with permeabilities of 2×10^–3 to 5×10^–2 ms^–1 (in the coastal part). A numerical modeling process shows a relative error map between calculated and measured piezometric surfaces, in order to facilitate calibration in steady state.The distribution of hydraulic conductivity values, and the lateral variation of sequences (deduced from engineering geology methods e.g. hydrogeological drilling data, seismic reflection interpretation, and geostatistical analysis), are controlled by synsedimentary fault activity, which deepened the Mio-Pliocene basement resulting in a thickening of overlying permeable rocks.

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Resumen Esta nota trata la relación existente entre las características físicas y la distribución de la conductividad hidráulica de los acuíferos subyacentes de la cuenca del Rharb-Mamora (norte de Marruecos). Para la simulación del flujo del agua subterránea se ha establecido un modelo en régimen permanente. La distribución de la conductividad hidráulica corresponde a un reparto hidrodinámico cuyo grado de permeabilidad es generalmente alto: desde 2×10^–3 hasta 5×10^–2 ms^–1 (zona costera). Con el objetivo de facilitar la calibración del modelo en régimen permanente, el proceso numérico realizado mostró errores relativos entre la piezometría calculada y medida. La distribución de los valores de permeabilidad y la variación lateral de las unidades permeables ha sido deducida a partir de métodos de geología aplicada (análisis de los sondeos hidrogeológicos, interpretación de los perfiles de sísmica de reflexión y aplicación de métodos geoestadísticos), y están controlados por la actividad de las fallas sinsedimentarias que influyen sobre la topografía del basamento mio-plioceno y el grosor de las unidades acuíferas.

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Résumé Cette note traite la relation entre les caractéristiques physique du bassin Rharb-Mamora (Nord du Maroc) et la répartition de la conductivité hydraulique du réseau aquifère. Le modèle de simulation des écoulements souterrains a été établi en régime permanent. La distribution de la conductivité hydraulique correspond à un découpage hydrodynamique dont le degré de perméabilité est généralement bon entre 2×10^–3 to 5×10^–2 ms^–1 (zone côtière). Afin de faciliter le calage en régime permanent, le code numérique établi permet de mettre en évidence les erreurs relatives entre la piézométrie calculée et mesurée.La distribution des valeurs de perméabilité et la variation latérale des unités perméables, déduites des méthodes de la géologie appliquée (analyse des forages hydrogéologiques, interprétation des profils sismique réflexion et analyse géostatistique), sont contrôlées par lactivité des failles synsédimentaires qui influencent lapprofondissement du substratum hydrogéologique mio-pliocène et lépaississement des corps perméables.

     

Numerical simulation of groundwater flow in regional rock aquifers, southwestern Quebec, Canada

The St. Lawrence Lowlands platform, Quebec, Canada, is a densely-populated area, heavily dependent on groundwater resources. In 1999, the Geological Survey of Canada initiated a large-scale hydrogeological assessment study over a 1,500 km² region northwest of Montreal. The objectives were to define the regional groundwater flow, and to give quantitative estimates of the groundwater dynamic parameters and of the available groundwater resources. The applied approach consisted of defining the hydrogeologic framework, hydraulic properties of the aquifer units, and groundwater dynamic components. Lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks represent regional aquifer units. Coarse Quaternary fluvio-glacial sediments locally overlay the rock sequence and constitute an interface aquifer unit. Fine marine sediments confine most of the regional aquifers. Collected GIS based information was synthesized in a finite element numerical model. The regional saturated steady-state flow was calibrated under current stress conditions assuming an equivalent porous medium approach. Water budget calculations show that the total groundwater flow in regional aquifers amounts to 97.7 Mm³/y. Infiltration from precipitation provides 86.6% of the groundwater supply, while 9.6% comes from subsurface inflow and the remaining 3.8% is induced recharge from surface waters. Discharge from regional aquifers occurs through flow to streams (76.9%), groundwater withdrawal (18.4%), and underground outflow (4.7%).

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Resumen La plataforma de Tierras Bajas San Lorenzo, Quebec, Canadá, es un área densamente poblada que depende fuertemente de recursos de agua subterránea. En 1999 el Servicio Geológico de Canadá inició un estudio de evaluación hidrogeológica a gran escala sobre un área de 1,500 km² en la región noroeste de Montreal. Los objetivos fueron definir el flujo regional de agua subterránea y aportar estimados cuantitativos de los parámetros dinámicos de agua subterráne y de los recursos disponibles de agua subterránea. El enfoque aplicado consistió en definir el marco hidrogeológico, propiedades hidráulicas de las unidades acuíferas, y los componentes dinámicos de agua subterránea. Rocas sedimentarias del Paleozoico Inferior representan unidades regionales de acuíferos. Sedimentos fluvio-glaciares Cuaternarios gruesos sobreyacen localmente la secuencia rocosa y constituyen una unidad acuífera interfacial. Sedimentos marinos finos confinan la mayoría de acuíferos regionales. Información colectada basada en SIG se sintetizó en un modelo numérico de elemento finito. El flujo regional saturado en régimen permanente se calibró bajo condiciones de stress asumiendo un enfoque de medio poroso equivalente. Los cálculos de balance hídrico muestran que el flujo total de agua subterránea en acuíferos regional alcanza 97.7 Mm³/año. Infiltración a partir de lluvia aporta el 86.6% del abastecimiento al agua subterránea, mientras que el 9.6% proviene de entradas subsuperficiales y el restante 3.8% consiste de recarga inducida a partir de aguas superficiales. La descarga proveniente de acuíferos regionales ocurre a través de flujo a ríos (76.9%), utilización de agua subterránea (18.4%), y salida subterránea (4.7%).

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Résumé La plateforme Lowllands du Saint-Laurent, Québec, Canada, est une aire densément peuplée, dépendant grandement des ressources en eau souterraine. En 1999, le Service Géologique du Canada a initié une étude hydrogéologique à grande-échelle sur 1500 km² au Nord-Ouest de Montréal. Le sobjectifs ont été de définir la dynamique de lécoulement régional, et de donner des estimations quantitatives des paramètres dynamiques des ressources disponibles en eau souterraine. Lapproche utilisée consista à définir le cadre hydrogéologique de travail, les propriétés hydrauliques des unités aquifères, et les composantes dynamiques des eaux souterraines. Les roches sédimentaires du Paléozoïque Inférieur représentent les unités aquifères régionales. Les sédiments marins fins confinent la plus grande partie des aquifères régionaux. Les informations de base, collectées dans un SIG, ont été synthétisées dans un modèle numérique aux éléments finis. Lécoulement permanent régional, en zone saturée, a été calibré en conditions de stress en assumant une approche de milieu poreu équivalent. Les calculs du bilan hydrologique montrent que lécoulement total des eaux souterraines dans les aquifères régionaux atteind 97,7 Mm³/an. Linfiltration à partir des précipitations apporte 86.6% de leau souterraine exploitée; sachant que 9,6% proviennent découlement de subsurfaces, et que les 3,8% restants proviennent de la recharge via les eaux de surface. Le débit pompé des aquifères régionaux apparaît à travers lécoulement des cours deau, le rabattement des eaux souterraines (18.4%), et lécoulement ascendant (4.7%).

     

Gondwanan magmatism with adakite-like signature linked to Cu (Mo)-porphyry deposits from the San Rafael Massif,Mendoza Province,Argentina

The gondwanan magmatism in the San Rafael Massif, known as Choiyoi Magmatic Cycle, was emplaced during the inception of a magmatic arc setting during the early Permian. Two different sections can be differentiated in this volcanic sequence. The lower section (∼281 up to ∼265 Ma) consisting of andesites and dacitic to low-silica rhyolitic ignimbrites has geochemical characteristics that indicate a subduction zone setting. The upper section (∼265 up to ∼252 Ma) composed of rhyolitic ignimbrites and lava flows, dacitic to rhyolitic subvolcanics and alkalic basaltic andesites has geochemical characteristics transitional between subduction and continental intraplate settings. Several Cu–(Mo) porphyry deposits are genetically linked to the lower section (Infiernillo, San Pedro and La Chilca-Zanjón del Buitre). In this paper, we discussed the petrogenesis of the magmatism linked to the porphyry deposits from the San Rafael Massif. The petrogenetic analysis suggests that the lower section was produced in a thickened crust resulting in an adakite-like signature magmatism. The U/Pb LA-ICP-MS age of magmatic zircons from an intrusive associated to the San Pedro porphyry (263.1 ± 4.2 Ma) allowed confirming that the emplacement of Cu–Mo porphyry deposits in the San Rafael Massif occurred during the change in the geodynamical conditions from a transpressive to a transtensive tectonic regime.     

Hydrogeochemistry of the Goulburn Valley region of the Murray Basin, Australia: implications for flow paths and resource vulnerability

Groundwater in the Goulburn region of the Murray Basin (Australia) contains solutes derived mainly from evapotranspiration of rainfall-derived marine aerosols, silicate dissolution, and ion exchange. ¹⁴C data indicate that groundwater in the Shepparton Formation recharges vertically across the region, whereas groundwater in the Calivil–Renmark Formation shows a greater component of lateral flow. The overall pattern of geochemical and stable isotope variations implies that long-term vertical groundwater flow into the Calivil–Renmark Formation has occurred over thousands of years. Elevated C, N, and F concentrations, together with variable Cl/Br ratios and ¹⁸O values, suggest that short-term (years to decades) flow of surface water into the Calivil–Renmark Formation also occurs locally. The high degree of vertical flow implies that the high-quality groundwater resources of the Calivil–Renmark Formation are vulnerable to surface contamination. Groundwater in both the Shepparton and Calivil–Renmark Formations yields ¹⁴C ages of up to 20 ka that imply that, overall, recharge rates are low and that, consequently, the groundwater resource in both formations could be impacted by over abstraction.

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Resumen Las aguas subterráneas de la región de Goulburn, en la cuenca del río Murray (Australia), contienen solutos procedentes principalmente de la evaporación de agua de lluvia, disolución de silicatos e intercambio iónico. Aunque la variabilidad espacial de la hidrogeoquímica es reducida, el contenido total de sales disueltas en las aguas subterráneas de la formación no confinada de Shepparton es generalmente mayor que el del acuífero inferior confinado de la Formación Calivil–Renmark. Los datos de ¹⁴C, ³H y geoquímica sugieren que la recarga del acuífero de la Formación Shepparton es por infiltración (vertical) en toda la región, mientras que la Formación Calivil–Renmark tiene una mayor proporción de aportes laterales. Sin embargo, a escala local se produce recarga vertical en la Formación Calivil–Renmark, hecho que indica que este recurso es vulnerable a la contaminación. Las aguas subterráneas de ambas formaciones tienen edades de hasta 20.000 años, según datos de ¹⁴C, lo que implica que las tasas de recarga son bajas y, en consecuencia, que podría haber impactos asociados a la sobreexplotación del recurso. Las aguas subterráneas recientes de la región se caracterizan por relaciones molares muy variables de Cl/Br (de 50 a 1.200), reflejando la química de una precipitación semiárida que se ve modificada posteriormente por disolución de halita, asociada con terrenos secos y riego con aguas salinas. Las aguas subterráneas más profundas presentan relaciones más uniformes de Cl/Br (entre 500 y 800), y probablemente reflejan que la recarga se produjo en condiciones climáticas más húmedas que las actuales.

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Résumé Les eaux souterraines de la région de Goulburn dans le bassin de Murray (Australie) contiennent des solutés provenant essentiellement de lévaporation des pluies, de la dissolution de silicates et déchanges dions. Alors quil y a peu de variations spatiales du chimisme des eaux souterraines, les concentrations en sels dissous totaux des eaux souterraines de laquifère libre de la formation de Shepparton sont en général plus élevées que celles des eaux souterraines de laquifère captif sous-jacent de la formation de Calivil-Renmark. Des données de carbone-14, de tritium et de géochimie indiquent que laquifère de la formation de Shepparton est rechargé verticalement dans toute la région, tandis que laquifère de la formation de Calivil-Renmark présente une plus forte composante découlement latéral. Toutefois, localement, il se produit une recharge verticale de laquifère de la formation de Calivil-Renmark, ce qui indique que cette ressource est vulnérable à la contamination. Les eaux souterraines des formations de Shepparton et de Calivil-Renmark présentent toutes deux des âges carbone-14 de plus de 20 ka, ce qui implique des taux de recharge très faibles et, par conséquent, que leur ressource peut être affectée par des prélèvements excessifs. Les eaux souterraines récentes dans cette région sont caractérisées par un rapport molaire Cl/Br très variable (de 50 à 1200), qui reflète le chimisme de pluies en région semi-aride modifié en conséquence par la dissolution de la halite associée à la salinité due aux terres sèches et à lirrigation. Les eaux souterraines plus profondes possèdent des rapports Cl/Br plus uniformes (de lordre de 500 à 800) et reflètent probablement des eaux de recharge sous des conditions climatiques plus humides que les conditions actuelles.

     

The Late Carboniferous to Late Triassic segment of the apparent polar wander path of Iberia

A palaeomagnetic study has been carried out at 16 well-dated sites from four areas in central Spain (southeastern Iberian Massif and western Iberian Ranges) in order to constrain the Late Carboniferous to Late Triassic segment of the apparent polar wander path (APWP) of Iberia. 322 samples (218 with useful results) were collected from andesitic rocks at Atienza (287 ± 12 Ma) and from Triassic continental red beds at Molina de Aragón (Anisian-Ladinian), Alcaraz (Ladinian-Carnian), Alcázar de San Juan (Ladinian-Carnian) and Cuevas de Ayllón (Carnian-Norian). Comparison of the palaeomagnetic results from the western Iberian Ranges and from the Iberian Massif indicates that the investigated area of the Iberian Ranges forms part of Stable Iberia. The palaeomagnetic poles obtained in this study and a revision of previous palaeomagnetic data, discarding poles obtained from areas of doubtful stability, show together a gradual and consistent change in latitude and longitude resulting in a coherent segment of the APWP for the Late Carboniferous to Late Triassic time span.     

Characterising the main karst aquifers of the Alvand basin, northwest of Zagros, Iran, by a hydrogeochemical approach

The Alvand River basin, situated in the northwest of the Zagros mountain range, Iran, drains carbonate aquifers through some important karst springs. The physical, chemical and isotopic characteristics of spring water were studied for two years in order to assess the origin of groundwater and determine the factors driving the geochemical composition. Principal components analysis was used to identify the main factors controlling the water chemistry. Two groups of springs were identified: (1) low mineralisation, ion concentration, especially sulphate, low temperature, light isotope composition and high elevation of the recharge area, and (2) moderate to high mineralisation, especially sulphate, higher temperature, heavy isotope composition and low altitude of the recharge area. The main factors controlling the groundwater composition and its seasonal variations are the geology, because of the presence of evaporite formations, the elevation and the rate of karst development. In both groups, the carbonate chemistry is diagnostic of the effect of karst development. The supersaturation with respect to calcite indicates CO₂ degassing, occurring either inside the aquifer in open conduits, or at the outlet in reservoirs. The undersaturation with respect to calcite shows the existence of fast flow and short residence-time conditions inside the aquifer. A PCA analysis showed that, contrary to most developed karst systems, where dilution occurs during the wet season, leaching of the gypsum-bearing Gachsaran Formation by rainwater produced higher mineralisation.

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Resumen La cuenca del río Alvand, situada en el noreste de la cadena montañosa Zagros drena acuíferos compuestos por carbonatos a través de manantiales kársticos. Durante dos años se estudiaron las características físicas, químicas e isotópicas del agua de manantial con el objetivo de determinar el origen del agua subterránea y de los factores que controlan su composición geoquímica. Se utililizó el análisis de componentes principales para identificar los factores principales que controlan la química del agua. Se identificaron dos grupos de mantaniales: (1) de baja mineralización, concentración de iones especialmente sulfatos, y baja temperatura, composición de isotopos livianos y elevación alta del área de recarga, y (2) mineralización moderada y alta, especialmente, sulfatos, y temperatura más alta, composición de isotopos pesados y altitud más baja del agua de recarga. Los factores principales que controlan la composición del agua subterránea y sus variaciones estacionales son la geología debido a la presencia de formaciones evaporitas, la elevación y la tasa a la que se desarrolla el karst. En ambos grupos la química de los carbonatos es un diagnóstico del efecto del desarollo de la estructura kárstica. La supersaturación con respecto a la calcita indica presencia de CO₂ que está en proceso de degasificación que ocurre dentro de acuífero en conductos abiertos o a la salida en reservorios. La subsaturación en lo referente a la calcita muestra la existencia de flujo rápido y de tiempos cortos de residencia al interior del acuífero. El análisis de componentes principales muestra que a diferencia de la mayor parte de sistemas kársticos en donde la dilución ocurre durante la temporada de lluvias, la lixiviación de la formación Gachsaran que contiene yeso a causa de lluvia produce mineralizaciones más altas.

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Résumé Le bassin de la rivière Alvand, situé dans le nord-ouest de la chaîne de montagne Zagros, draine des aquifères carbonatés par le biais dun important réseau de sources karstiques. Les caractéristiques physiques, chimiques et isotopiques de leau provenant des sources ont été étudiées pendant deux ans afin de déterminer lorigine de leau souterraine et les facteurs responsables de sa composition chimique actuelle. Lanalyse des éléments chimiques majeurs a été utilisée pour identifier les processus qui contrôlent la composition chimique de leau. Deux groupes différents de sources ont été identifiés: (1) faible minéralisation et concentration en ions, spécialement en sulfates, faible température, composition isotopique légère et haute élévation de la zone de recharge, et (2) minéralisation moyenne à élevée, particulièrement en sulfates, température élevée, composition isotopique lourde et plus basse altitude de la zone de recharge. Les facteurs principaux qui contrôlent la composition et la variation saisonnière de leau souterraine sont la géologie, en raison de la présence dévaporites, lélévation et le taux de développement des karsts. Dans les deux groupes, la teneur en carbonates est un diagnostic de leffet du développement de la structure des karsts. La sursaturation par rapport à la calcite indique un dégazage en CO₂ qui a lieu soit à lintérieur de laquifère, dans les conduits ouverts, ou à sa sortie, dans les réservoirs. La sous-saturation par rapport à la calcite indique lexistence dun écoulement rapide et un faible temps de résidence dans laquifère. Une analyse des éléments chimiques majeurs a démontré que contrairement aux systèmes de karst les mieux développés où la dilution a lieu lors de la saison humide, le lessivage du gypse de la formation de Gachsaran par leau de pluie produit une minéralisation plus élevée.

     

Recharge mechanism and hydrochemistry evaluation of groundwater in the Nuaimeh area, Jordan, using environmental isotope techniques

The relationship between the stable isotopic and chemical composition of precipitation and groundwater was studied in the Nuaimeh area of the Ajloun Highlands in Jordan. The isotopic composition values of precipitation and groundwater are almost identical. The spatial variation of stable isotopes in precipitation is mainly due to the effect of seasonal temperature, altitude and amount. The groundwater reveals identical variation in isotopic composition to the precipitation due to direct recharge and the karstic nature of the outcropping Turonian aquifer. Tritium levels in wells are high and their content is similar to the weighted mean value of tritium content in precipitation, indicating local recharge and low residence time. The ¹⁴C activity in the tritiated groundwater is found to be about half of the ¹⁴C activity of precipitation in the region. A geochemical evolution through dissolution of carbonate by water–carbonate rock interactions reduced the atmospheric ¹⁴C activity from 114 to 61 pmc in the groundwater. A ¹⁴C of around 61 pmc and 7.6 TU values are considered the initial concentration for the recharge in the shallow carbonate aquifer in the Yarmouk Basin. The large fluctuation of water level in observation wells during the rainy season indicates the sensitivity and direct response of the aquifer to the recharge. The chemical composition of the groundwater (Ca²⁺–HCO₃^–) gives emphasis to the short duration of water–rock interaction and indicates dissolution of the carbonate aquifer. The elevated concentrations of Cl^– and NO₃^– in groundwater are attributed to anthropogenic sources.

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Resumen Fue estudiada la relación entre la composición isotópica estable y la composición química, tanto de la precipitación como del agua subterránea, en el área de Nuaimeh en las montañas de Ajloun, en Jordania. Los valores de la composición isotópica de la precipitación y del agua subterránea son casi idénticos. La variación espacial de los isótopos estables en la precipitación, es debida principalmente al efecto de la temperatura estacional, a la altura y a la cantidad. El agua subterránea muestra una variación idéntica a la precipitación en cuanto a la composición isotópica, debido a la recarga directa y a la naturaleza cársica del acuífero Turoniano aflorante. Los niveles de tritio en los pozos son altos y su contenido es similar al valor medio ponderado del contenido de tritio en la precipitación, indicando una recarga local y un tiempo de residencia corto. Se ha encontrado que la actividad de ¹⁴C en el agua subterránea tritiada, es alrededor de la mitad de la actividad del ¹⁴C en la precipitación para la región. La evolución geoquímica ocurrida a partir de la disolución del carbonato, por las interacciones roca carbonatada–agua, redujeron la actividad atmosférica del ¹⁴C desde 114 en porcentaje de carbono moderno (pcm) hasta 61 pcm en el agua subterránea. Los valores del ¹⁴C cercanos a 61 pcm y de 7.6 unidades de tritio, se han considerado como las concentraciones originales para la recarga en el acuífero carbonatado somero de la Cuenca de Yarmouk. Una gran fluctuación en el nivel de agua de los pozos de observación, durante la estación lluviosa, indica la sensibilidad y la respuesta directa del acuífero frente a la recarga. La composición química del agua subterránea (Ca²⁺–HCO₃^–), enfatiza en la corta duración de la interacción de agua–roca, e indica disolución del acuífero carbonatado. La concentración elevada de Cl^– y NO₃^– en el agua subterránea, se atribuye a fuentes antropogénicas.

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Résumé Dans la région montagneuse dAjloun de Jordanie on a étudié la relation entre la composition chimique et isotopique des précipitations et des eaux souterraines. La composition isotopique est presque identique dans précipitations et les eaux souterraines. La variation spatiale de la teneur en isotopes stables dans les précipitations est déterminée en principal par les variations saisonnière de la température, laltitude ainsi que par la quantité des précipitations. A cause de la recharge directe et de la nature karstique des affleurements de laquifère dage touronienne, les eaux souterraines présentent la même composition isotopique que les précipitations. La teneur en ³H mesurée dans les forages présente des valeurs élevées, proches de la valeur moyenne des précipitations, ce quindique une recharge locale et un temps court de résidence. On a déterminé pour lactivité de ¹⁴C une valeur proche de la moitié trouvée dans les précipitations. Lévolution géochimique par dissolution des carbonates pendant linteraction entre leau et les roche a diminué lactivité du ¹⁴C, de la valeur de 114 pcm en atmosphère à 61 pcm dans les eaux souterraines. Dans laquifère calcaire de surface de bassin Yarmouk, on a considéré comme de concentrations initiales, les valeurs de 61 pcm pour ¹⁴C et 7.2 UT pour ³H. Les grandes fluctuations des niveaux des eaux souterraines observées dans les forages pendant les saisons pluvieux montrent la sensibilité ainsi que la réponse directe de laquifère au recharge. La composition chimique des eaux souterraines (Ca²⁺–HCO₃^–) montre de plus le temps court de linteraction entre leau et la roche, en indiquant aussi la dissolution de laquifère calcaire. Les taux élevées de la concentration en Cl^– et NO₃^– dans les eaux souterraines ont été attribuées aux sources humaines.