A new mixing equation for bed material composition in bed form dominant conditions

Vertical mixing beneath the bed surface and its effect on sediment composition has long been underestimated. This paper proposes a mixing equation to illustrate the temporal and spatial variations of bed material composition for bed form dominant rivers. A continuous mass conservation equation for elevation-specific nonuniform bed material composition is initially presented. A vertical mixing equation is finally derived as a diffusion-type partial differential equation with a source term charact...     

接收函数的泊松比测量方法及大陆地壳构成的判断

地震观测是了解地球内部物理状态的直接手段，通过一些弹性参数可以推测地球内部的物质构成，而相应的物质构成对分析大陆地壳演化的过程具有重要意义。泊松比是推测地球内部物质构成的有效参数之一，接收函数方法分离出的Ps转换波为获取泊松比提供了一条行之有效的便捷途径。     

Raindrop‐induced saltation and the enrichment of sediment discharged from sheet and interrill erosion areas

Sheet and interrill erosion areas are sources of soil material rich in nutrients and pollutants. The loss of soil, nutrients and other chemicals from these areas is a matter of concern both in terms of maintaining soil productivity and the health of offsite environments. Many experiments on rainfall erosion have shown enrichment of fine material, nutrients and other chemicals in the sediment discharged for sheet and interrill erosion areas, but often these results were obtained over short periods of time. A qualitative mechanistic model of raindrop‐induced saltation is used to illustrate how this transport mechanism influences the composition of sediment discharged by rain‐impacted flow. Initially, fast moving particles are enriched in the sediment discharge but, over time, during a rainfall event, slower moving particles become more represented. Raindrop‐induced saltation promotes the storage of material on the soil surface with a coarser composition than the original soil. Winnowing of material from this storage by the development of flow‐driven saltation during high‐intensity events can modify the composition of the sediment discharged later by raindrop‐induced saltation. Given stable soil particles, the composition of the sediment discharged at the steady state is the same as the original soil. Enrichment is a non‐steady‐state phenomenon and failure to recognize the transient nature of enrichment may lead to inappropriate interpretation of the implications of the results from short‐term experiments. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Apollo 15 green glasses

Apollo 15 breccia 15427 and soils 15101, 15261 and 15301 contain abundant spheres and fragments of a green glass that is remarkably constant in composition. The glass is rich in Fe and Mg, and low in Ti, unlike any known lunar basalt, and may be derived from material of pyroxenitic composition in the Apennine Front.     

Composition,temperature, and thickness of the lithosphere of the Archean Kaapvaal craton

A new model is proposed for the structure of the Kaapvaal craton lithosphere. Based on chemical thermodynamics methods, profiles of the chemical composition, temperature, density, and S wave velocities are constructed for depths of 100–300 km. A solid-state zone of lower velocities is discovered on the S velocity profile in the depth interval 150–260 km. The temperature profiles are obtained from absolute values of P and S velocities, taking into account phase transformations, anharmonicity, and anelastic effects. The examination of the sensitivity of seismic models to the chemical composition showed that relatively small variations in the composition of South African xenoliths result in lateral temperature variations of ～200°C. Inversion of some seismic profiles (including IASP91) with a fixed bulk composition of garnet peridotites (the primitive mantle material) leads to a temperature inversion at depths of 200–250 km, which is physically meaningless. It is supposed that the temperature inversion can be removed by gradual fertilization of the mantle with depth. In this case, the craton lithosphere should be stratified in chemical composition. The depleted lithosphere composed by garnet peridotites exists to depths of 175–200 km. The lithospheric material at depths of 200–250 km is enriched in basaltoid components (FeO, Al₂O₃, and CaO) as compared with the material of garnet peridotites but is depleted in the same components as compared with the fertile substance of the underlying primitive mantle. The material composing the craton root at a depth of ～275 km does not differ in its physical and chemical characteristics from the composition of the normal mantle, and this allows one to estimate the thickness of the lithosphere at 275 km. The results of this work are compared with data of seismology, thermal investigations, and thermobarometry.     

Major,minor and trace element abundances in samples from the Apollo 17 station 7 boulder: Implications for the origin of early lunar crustal rocks

Apollo 17 station 7 boulder consortia samples were analyzed for major and minor elements by a combined semimicro atomic absorption spectrophotometric and colorimetric procedure. Lithophile trace element abundances were determined by stable isotope dilution mass spectrometry. Three matrix types samples (77135, 77115, and 77075) were found to be KREEP-rich fragment-laden melts with analogues throughout the Apollo 17 landing site. Of the five clasts analyzed, at least one (77115,19, troctolite) is thought to be a cumulate; 77135, 77115, and 77075 are thought to have originated by impact fusion of material with similar composition. This original material may represent a partial melt of a parent material of the composition of an included, shocked norite breccia (77215).     

Strontium isotopic geochemistry of intrusive rocks,Puerto Rico,Greater Antilles

The strontium isotopic geochemistry is given for three Puerto Rican intrusive rocks: the granodioritic Morovis and San Lorenzo plutons and the Rio Blanco stock of quartz dioritic composition. The average calculated initial⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios are 0.70370, 0.70355 and 0.70408, respectively. In addition, the San Lorenzo data establish a whole-rock isochron of71 ± 2m.y., which agrees with the previously reported K-Ar age of 73 m.y. Similarity of most of the intrusive rocks in the Greater Antilles with respect to their strontium isotopic geochemistry regardless of their major element composition indicates that intrusive magmas with a wide range of composition can be derived from a single source material. The most likely source material, in view of the available isotopic data, is the mantle wedge overlying the subduction zone.     

Mean crustal velocity: a critical parameter for interpreting crustal structure and crustal growth

Mean crustal velocity is a critical parameter for genesis of continental crystalline crust because it is a function of mean crustal composition and therefore may be used to resolve continental crustal growth in space and time. Although the best values of mean crustal velocity are determined from wide-angle reflection measurements, most studied here necessarily come from vertical averages in crustal refraction determinations. The mode of 158 values of mean crustal velocity is 6.3 km/s, a velocity which corresponds to a mean crustal composition of granodiorite to felsic quartz diorite; Archean crust may be slightly more mafic. Mean crustal velocities range from 5.8 to 7.0 km/s. The lowest values invariably are found in thermally disturbed rift zones and the highest values correspond to velocities in gabbro. Velocities in island arcs may be as low as 6.0 km/s but are typically 6.5–6.9 km/s which corresponds to andesitic composition; estimates of island arc composition are andesitic. If values of mean crustal velocity are not biased, this observation suggests that continental crust did not grow simply by addition of island arc material. Possibilities are that crust formed from fusion of island arcs and was later changed to more felsic composition by addition of material from the mantle or that the late Archean episode of major crustal growth did not involve processes similar to younger island arcs. Some crustal blocks might be changed in composition and thickness by such processes as underplating, interthrusting, necking and sub-crustal erosion. Specially designed experiments are suggested to determine this parameter so critical for understanding genesis of continental crust.     

Variations in the Hydrological Regime of Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf,Lake Issyk-Kul,and the Aral Sea Assessed Based on Data of Bottom Sediment Studies

The isotopic and material composition of bottom deposits, examined in the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf, Lake Issyk-Kul, and the Aral Sea, is considered. The obtained data are used to characterize variations in the regime of the water bodies in the Holocene.     

Primitive ultrafine matrix in ordinary chondrites

Ultrafine matrix material has been concentrated by sieving and filtering disaggregated samples of six ordinary chondrites of different classes. This component(s), “Holy Smoke” (HS), is enriched in both volatile, e.g. Na, K, Zn, Sb, and Pb, as well as refractory elements, e.g. W and REE; however, the element ratios vary greatly among the different chondrites. SEM studies show that HS contains fragile crystals, differing in composition, and apparently in gross disequilibrium not only among themselves but also with the major mineral phases and consequently thermodynamic equilibration did not occur. Thus HS must have originated from impacting bodies and/or was inherent in the “primitive” regolith. Subsequent impact brecciation and reheating appears to have altered, to varying degrees, the original composition of this ultrafine matrix material. Recent “cosmic dust” studies may indicate that HS still exists in the solar system. Survival of such delicate material must be considered in all theories for the origin of chondrites.     

基于参考组分的双能CT成像方法

双能CT材料分解对了解物质内部材料分布有重要作用,常规CT所使用的X射线能谱分布未知,无法根据能量信息获得材料衰减系数,并且连续能谱投影与单能重建算法不匹配,导致重建图像衰减系数和材料理论衰减系数之间存在误差,分解结果不准确.针对上述问题,本文引入参考组分获得等效能量信息,进而获得材料的单能衰减系数,并且引入邻域空间欧...     

Controls of the chemical composition of particle populations in a macrotidal estuary (Tamar Estuary, U.K.)

The chemical composition of suspended particulate material (SPM) in the Tamar Estuary and its response to tidal sediment resuspension at the turbidity maximum have been investigated. The results discriminate four regions: (1) the outer estuary where spatial changes in the composition of SPM reflect the dispersal of estuarine particles modified by in situ generation of organic particles, (2) the middle estuary where the composition of SPM is mainly determined by hydrodynamic mixing although there is some evidence of in situ chemical reactivity, (3) the upper estuary where sharply distinct and temporally variable SPM compositions are centred at the turbidity maximum; these are largely the result of particle-selective accumulation, sedimentation and resuspension processes rather than of local particle-water chemical exchanges, and (4) the fluvial estuary where the SPM composition reflects the influx of riverine particles.     

Shock-induced volatile loss from a carbonaceous chondrite: implications for planetary accretion

Solid-recovery impact-induced volatile loss experiments on the Murchison C2M meteorite indicate that for an impact of a given velocity, H₂O and total volatiles are driven from the sample in the same proportion as present initially. We infer that the volatiles other than H₂O driven from the meteorite also have the same bulk composition as those of the starting material. Thus, the early bulk composition of an impact-induced atmosphere of a planet growing by accretion from material like Murchison would be the same as the volatile composition of the incident planetesimals. Incipient devolatilization of Murchison occurs at an initial shock pressure of about 11 GPa and complete devolatilization occurs at a pressure of about 30 GPa. If an Earth-sized planet were formed from the infall of planetesimals of Murchison composition, incipient and complete devolatilization of accreting planetesimals would occur when the planet reached approximately 12% and 27%, respectively, of its final radius. Thus, impact-induced devolatilization of accreting planetesimals and of the hydrated surface would profoundly affect the distribution of volatiles within the accreting planet. For example, for a cold, homogeneous accretion of a planet, prior to metallic core formation and internal differentiation, the growing planet would have a very small core with the same volatile content as the incident material, a volatile-depleted “mantle”, and an extremely volatile-rich surface.     

Further evidence in support of the mixing model for howardite origin

Four diogenites, four howardites and seven eucrites have been analysed for major, minor and a number of trace elements by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Inter-element relationships between various elements in howardites, particularly refractory elements, are interpreted in the light of the recently proposed mixing model, whereby howardites are considered to be mixtures of eucritic and diogenitic material. Differences in composition observed between two samples of Frankfort analysed in this work lend strong support to this hypothesis. The nature of the proposed end-member composition in howardites is shown to be variable.     

Input of chemical substances with atmospheric precipitation onto the territory of Karelia

The chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation over the entire territory of Karelia is characterized on the basis of snow samples taken during the periods of maximum snow storage in 1996–2000. The concentration of chemical elements and their fallouts are considered within the northern, central, southern, and eastern regions of Karelia. The aero-technogenic effect of industrial centers of Karelia and the Archangelsk Province on the chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation is analyzed. The above material is generalized in the form of average statistical characteristics of the chemical fallouts of mineral, organic, and biogenic substances, heavy metals, and strong acids.     

Isotopic inferences on the chemical structure of the mantle

Variations in the isotopic composition of rocks derived from the upper mantle can be used to infer the chemical history and structure of the Earth's interior. The most prominent material in the upper mantle is the source of mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB). The MORB source is characterized by a general depletion in incompatible elements caused by the extraction of the continental crust from the mantle. At least three other isotopically distinct components are recognized in the suboceanic mantle. All three could be generated by the recycling of near surface materials (oceanic crust, pelagic sediments, continental lithospheric mantle) into the mantle by subduction. Therefore, the isotope data do not require a compositionally layered mantle, but neither do they deny the existence of such layering. Correlations between the volumetric output of plume volcanism with the reversal frequency of the Earth's magnetic field, and between the geographic distribution of isotopic variability in oceanic volcanism with seismic tomography suggest input of deep mantle material to surface volcanism in the form of deep mantle plumes. Volcanism on the continents shows a much wider range in isotopic composition than does oceanic volcanism. The extreme isotopic compositions observed for some continental magmas and mantle xenoliths indicate long-term (up to 3.3 Gyr) preservation of compositionally distinct material in thick (>200 km) sections of continental lithospheric mantle.     

Organic matter characteristics in a Mediterranean stream through amino acid composition: changes driven by intermittency

Amino acid composition (quality) and abundance (quantity) of organic matter (OM) in an intermittent Mediterranean stream were followed during transitions from wet to dry and dry to wet conditions. Amino acids were analyzed in benthic material (epilithic biofilms, sand sediments, leaf material) as well as in the flowing water (dissolved organic matter, DOM). A principal component analysis and the estimation of the amino acid degradation index (DI) elucidated differences in amino acid composition and quality among the wet–drought–wet cycle. Amino acid content and composition were dependent on the source of OM as well as on its diagenetic state. The highest-quality OM (high DI and high N content) occurred on epilithic biofilms and the most degraded and lowest-quality OM occurred in sandy sediments. Differences between the pre- and post-drought periods were evident in DOM quality; autochthonous-derived material was predominant during the pre-drought (wet period preceding drying), while allochthonous inputs dominated during the post-drought period (wet period following drying). In contrast, benthic OM compartments were more stable, but benthic OM quality decreased continuously throughout the drought period. This study revealed that wet–drought–wet cycles resulted in subtle changes in benthic OM quality, and degradation of DOM was related to flow intermittency.     

Absence of β-alanine and γ-aminobutyric acid in cleaned foraminiferal shells: Implications for use as a chemical criterion to indicate removal of non-indigenous amino acid contaminants

The amino acids β-alanine and γ-aminobutyric acid are known to compose only a very minor proportion of the total amino acid content in living matter. In deep-sea sediments, however, their abundance in high proportions is ubiquitous. The organic material within foraminiferal calcite tests that are recovered from marine sediments has been found to contain no β-alanine and γ-aminobutyric acid. This observation provides a chemical check that can be used to ensure that the tests have been thoroughly cleaned. Such checks are important because the amino acid composition of organic material contained within the test is currently being used to establish schemes for chronology and taxonomy of foraminifera.     

长江中游沙质河段床沙级配调整过程计算

三峡工程运用后,长江中游荆江河段持续冲刷,床沙与推移质、悬移质泥沙不断交换,从而造成该河段床沙发生不同程度的调整,对长江中下游河床演变及非平衡输沙机理的研究具有重要影响.在新水沙条件下,总结分析了沙波运动特性及床沙交换方式,引入Markov三态转移概率及非均匀沙隐暴系数,得到基于状态转移概率的沙质河段床沙级配调整的计算模型.研究结果表明:(1)20092014年,沙市站年内床沙中值粒径有先增大后减小的趋势,而监利站年内床沙中值粒径则先减小后增大,且荆江河段年际床沙中值粒径总体呈上升趋势,粗化程度约为6.9%~9.3%;(2)20092014年,沙市站床沙组成中粒径d<0.062 mm的泥沙所占比重不变,0.062 mm≤d<0.25 mm的泥沙所占比重逐年减少(累计减少11.4%),d≥0.25 mm的泥沙所占比重逐年增加(累计增加11.4%),而监利站床沙组成均存在波动性变化;(3)荆江河段床沙转换为推移质的概率随着泥沙粒径的增大而增大,床沙转换为悬移质的概率随着泥沙粒径的增大而减小,而推移质和悬移质转换为床沙的概率均随着泥沙粒径的增大而增大,河床发生冲刷粗化时泥沙输移的主要形式为悬移质(概率为81%~87%),而淤积细化时床沙补给主要来源于推移质(概率为8%~12%).通过验证,本文概率模型的计算结果与实测资料符合较好,能够应用于长江中游沙质河段年际床沙粗化及年内床沙级配调整过程预报,为进一步开展三峡工程下游非均匀悬移质泥沙沿程恢复机理的研究提供理论基础.     

Isotope and trace element geochemistry of MORB from the Nansen-Gakkel ridge at 86° north

The geochemistry of mid-oceanic ridge basalts from 86°N (Arctic Ocean) provides, for the first time, an insight into the composition of the mantle around the North Pole. Our data show the source region of the Arctic basalts to possess traces of an enrichment similar to the DUPAL signature. This is remarkable since up to now the DUPAL signature has been believed to be present only in Indian but not in Atlantic or Pacific MORB. These results also argue against a model of whole-mantle convection, in which upwelling of enriched material at the equator is balanced by downwelling of depleted material at the poles.