预制裂隙岩样宏细观力学行为颗粒流数值模拟

为了研究双轴压缩下预制裂隙岩样宏细观力学行为及裂纹扩展模式,采用颗粒流程序（PFC）先分析平行粘结模型细观参数对宏观参数的影响,接着结合完整花岗岩常规三轴压缩试验结果对其细观参数进行标定,最后借助该组参数模拟有围压下预制裂隙（上裂隙①和下裂隙②）岩样的力学特性。研究表明:基于PFC程序和标定的参数能较好地模拟完整岩样的破坏情况;随着围压增大,双裂隙岩样的峰值强度和弹性模量均增大,且裂隙②与水平向夹角α₂为90°时,两者均达到最大值;不同的α₂下,各岩样的裂纹演化均经过裂纹萌生、发展和稳定等3个阶段;随着围压的降低和轴向应力的增大,颗粒间的力链破坏情况愈严重。由于拉伸力链的集中和分布不同,水平裂隙长度方向上的裂纹沿着轴向扩展,且两裂隙的贯通呈现不同方式。     

Paleo-stress orientations from calcite twins in the North Pyrenean foreland, determined by the Etchecopar inverse method

During the last decade, it has been shown that accurate analyses of calcite twinning in thin section may allow computation of the paleo-deviatoric stress tensor associated with this deformation. Following from the work of Larroque and Laurent (1988), and Lacombe et al. (1989), this is a new application of the Etchecopar inverse method. Weakly deformed limestones from about 150 to 200 km north of the Pyrenean chain (South France) were studied. The Etchecopar inverse method, which can be used on a microcomputer, is comparable to the method of analysis of striated fault planes proposed by Etchecopar et al. in 1981, as it determines the principal stress orientations and the stress ellipsoid shape ratio φ = (σ₂ − σ₃)/(σ₁ − σ₃). The Etchecopar method using calcite twins has been selected for this study because it is suitable for the determination of polyphase deformation in coarse-grained limestones (Lacombe et al. 1989).

Ten samples of oolitic limestones, cemented with sparry calcite, from the Bajocian (170 Ma) and the Oligocene (30 Ma) were studied. For each of them, only one or two stress tensors were determined: the first is characterized by a principal compressive stress axis σ₁ which is horizontal and approximately N-S. Local departures from this orientation have been observed and are interpreted as local stress perturbations. For the second, which was defined in the Oligocene, but occurred only locally in the Jurassic limestones, the position of σ₁ is nearly vertical; the direction of extension σ₃ is either NE-SW or undefined into the horizontal plane (σ₂ = σ₃); this radial extension is interpreted as the result of two or more superposed extensive deformation phases with vertical σ₁. The N-S compression was never found in the Oligocene limestones, and from its orientation, it is assumed to correspond to the Pyrenean deformation. These results are compared to the more complex deformation pattern obtained from classical microtectonical studies (Arthaud and Choukroune, 1972; Bonijoly and Blès, 1983; Granier and Blès, 1988; Blès et al., 1989). Only the major tectonic events are recorded by calcite twinning. Finally, the suitability of calcite twin analyses for the determination of complex polyphase deformation is discussed.     

多轴压缩条件下层状硬质片岩的力学特性研究

在深部工程中经常会遇到层状岩体,由于高应力的影响,在工程活动中发生因层状结构面诱发的岩体灾害问题。这与深部工程中的真三向高应力环境及层状结构面产状密切相关。为此,基于一种取自某深部金属矿山的层状硬质片岩,开展了考虑片理方位的真三轴压缩试验研究,获取了该片岩在两种片理加载方位下,不同应力差条件时,试样的变形、强度及破裂数据。结果表明,该硬质片岩的力学特性受片理加载方位和应力条件影响较大。具体表现在,当中间主应力σ₂平行片理走向时,试样的脆性更强,且最小主应力σ₃ 越小脆性越强。当σ₂垂直片理走向时试样的强度更高,但强度随σ₃增加而增加的敏感性较弱。当σ₂平行片理走向时,试样的破坏均以沿片理的剪切为主;而当σ₂ 垂直片理走向时,试样在低σ₃ 时,主要发生穿片理的拉破坏,高σ₃ 时,则转变为沿片理的剪切破坏。试验结果对陡倾层状硬质岩体工程的稳定性评价有一定的启示意义,即当片理走向与洞轴线的夹角较小时,浅层围岩片理面的法向应力释放程度较高,易发生受片理结构控制的脆性破坏;反之,夹角较大时,岩体的稳定性较强。     

类砂质泥岩常规三轴浆压致裂起裂压力试验研究

为深入探究两淮矿区典型砂质泥岩劈裂注浆起裂机制,研制了常规三轴劈裂注浆试验装置,开展了类砂质泥岩浆压致裂起裂压力模型试验,基于试验结果分析了岩石强度与应力状态对注浆起裂压力、裂缝扩展形态影响规律,揭示了砂质泥岩劈裂注浆起裂机制。研究表明：起裂压力与岩石抗压强度呈正相关,且岩石抗压强度越高,劈裂路径越复杂;起裂压力对围压的敏感程度远高于轴压,且应力差 Δσ =σ_V −σ_H越大,裂缝形态越规整;孔压三轴条件下,封闭裸孔段浆压致裂法确定的岩石抗拉强度值约为单轴抗拉强度的 2.5倍。该研究结果可为今后类似岩层劈裂注浆参数设计与施工提供参考。     

Crack damage stress as a composite function of porosity and elastic matrix stiffness in dolomites and limestones

Twenty-five uniaxial compression tests were performed to determine stress at onset of dilation, referred to herein as “the crack damage stress,” in heterogeneous dolomites and limestones. A simplified model for crack damage stress (σ_cd) is developed here using porosity, elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio and three empirical coefficients. The model shows that when porosity decreases and elastic modulus increases, σ_cd rapidly increases and approaches its maximum value. On the other hand, when porosity increases and elastic modulus decreases, σ_cd rapidly decreases and approaches its minimum value. The proposed model is validated for six heterogeneous limestone and dolomite formations which are widely distributed in Israel.     

Petrogenesis of A-type granites and origin of vertical zoning in the Katharina pluton, Gebel Mussa (Mt. Moses) area, Sinai, Egypt

The central pluton within the Neoproterozoic Katharina Ring Complex (area of Gebel Mussa, traditionally believed to be the biblical Mt. Sinai) shows a vertical compositional zoning: syenogranite makes up the bulk of the pluton and grades upwards to alkali-feldspar granites. The latters form two horizontal subzones, an albite–alkali feldspar (Ab–Afs) granite and an uppermost perthite granite. These two varieties are chemically indistinguishable. Syenogranite, as compared with alkali-feldspar granites, is richer in Ca, Sr, K, Ba and contains less SiO₂, Rb, Y, Nb and U; Eu/Eu* values are 0.22–0.33 for syenogranite and 0.08–0.02 for alkali-feldspar granites. The δ¹⁸O (Qtz) is rather homogeneous throughout the pluton, 8.03–8.55‰. The δ¹⁸O (Afs) values in the syenogranite are appreciably lower relative to those in the alkali–feldspar granites: 7.59–8.75‰ vs. 8.31–9.12‰. A Rb–Sr isochron (n = 9) yields an age of 593 ± 16 Ma for the Katharina Ring Complex (granite pluton and ring dikes).

The alkali–feldspar granites were generated mainly by fractional crystallization of syenogranite magma. The model for residual melt extraction and accumulation is based on the estimated extent of crystallization ( 50 wt.%), which approximates the rigid percolation threshold for silicic melts. The fluid-rich residual melt could be separated efficiently by its upward flow through the rigid clusters of crystal phase. Crystallization of the evolved melt started with formation of hypersolvus granite immediately under the roof. Fluid influx from the inner part of the pluton to its apical zone persisted and caused increase of P_H2O in the magma below the perthite granite zone. Owing to the presence of F and Ca in the melt, P_H2O of only slightly more than 1 kbar allows crystallization of subsolvus Ab–Afs granite. Abundance of turbid alkali feldspars and their ¹⁸O/¹⁶O enrichment suggest that crystallization of alkali-feldspar granites was followed by subsolvus fluid–rock interaction; the δ¹⁸O (Fsp) values point to magmatic origin of fluids.

The stable and radiogenic isotope data [δ¹⁸O (Zrn) = 5.82 ± 0.06‰, I_Sr = 0.7022 ± 0.0064, ε_Nd (T) values are + 3.6 and + 3.9] indicate that the granite magma was generated from a ‘juvenile’ source, which is typical of the rocks making up most of the Arabian–Nubian shield.     

Source regions of granites and their links to tectonic environment: examples from the western United States

This review, in honor of Ilmari Haapala's retirement, reflects on lessons learned from studies of three granitic systems in western North America: (1) Mesoproterozoic samples from west Texas and east New Mexico; (2) Laramide granitic systems associated with porphyry-copper deposits in Arizona; and (3) granites of the Colorado Mineral Belt. The studies elucidate relationships amongst tectonic setting, source material, and magma chemistry.

Mesoproterozoic basement samples are from two different felsic suites with distinct elemental and isotopic compositions. The first suite, the “plutonic province”, is dominantly magnesian, calc-alkalic to alkali-calcic, and metaluminous. It has low K₂O/Na₂O and Rb/Sr, and Nd model ages of 1.56 to 1.40 Ga. The second suite, the “Panhandle igneous complex”, is magnesian, metaluminous, alkalic, and is part of the Mesoproterozoic belt of magmatism that extends from Finland to southwestern United States. Samples from the Panhandle igneous complex demonstrate three episodes of magmatism: the first pulse was intrusion of quartz monzonite at 1380 to 1370 Ma; the second was comagmatic epizonal granite and rhyolite at 1360 to 1350 Ma. Both of these rock types are high-K to slightly ultra-high-K. The third pulse at 1338 to 1330 Ma was intrusion of ultra-high-K quartz syenite. Nd model ages (1.94 to 1.52 Ga) are distinct from those of the “plutonic province” and systematically older than crystallization ages, implying a substantial crustal input to the magmas.

At the Sierrita porphyry-copper deposit in the Mazatzal Province of southeastern Arizona, trace element, Sr, and Nd isotopic compositions were determined for a suite of andesitic and rhyolitic rocks (67 Ma) intruded by granodiorite and granite. Isotopic composition and chemical evolution are well correlated throughout the suite. Andesite has the least negative initial ε_Nd (−4.3) and lowest ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr_i (0.7069). It is also the oldest and chemically most primitive, having low concentrations of Rb, SiO₂, and high concentrations of transition elements. These parameters change through the system to the youngest unit (granite), which has the most negative ε_Nd (−8.5), the highest ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr_i (0.7092), and is chemically most evolved. Correlation between chemical and Nd isotopic evolution probably resulted from a continuous process of progressive assimilation, in which mafic magmas invade and incorporate continental crust. Deposits in Arizona with ε_Nd values more negative than the −8.5 of Sierrita lie in the older Yavapai province in the northwestern part of the state. The difference in the most negative epsilon Nd implies that Nd isotopic signature is sensitive to the age of the Precambrian domain.

The granites from the Colorado Mineral Belt were emplaced during the transition from Laramide convergence to mid-Tertiary extension. Three different groups of granites are recognized. The first is Laramide and was formed during assimilation-fractional crystallization involving lower crustal mafic source materials; the second and third groups are mid-Tertiary and represent intracrustal melting of heterogeneous sources. This change in source regions and melt regimes in transition from convergence to extension is fundamental to the Mesozoic and Cenozoic evolution of western North America.     

Spatial, temporal and geochemical characteristics of Silurian collision-zone magmatism, Newfoundland Appalachians: An example of a rapidly evolving magmatic system related to slab break-off

Silurian plutonic suites in the Newfoundland Appalachians include abundant gabbro, monzogabbro and granite to granodiorite and lesser quartz diorite and tonalite. Most are medium- to high-K, but included are some low-K and shoshonitic mafic compositions. Felsic rocks are of both alkaline (A-type or within-plate granite (WPG)) and calc-alkaline volcanic arc granite (VAG) affinity. Mafic rocks include both arc-like (Nb/Th < 3) calc-alkaline and non-arc-like (Nb/Th > 3) transitional calc-alkaline basalt to continental tholeiitic affinity compositions. ε_Nd(T) values range from − 9.6 to + 5.4 and δ¹⁸O (VSMOW) values range from + 3.1 to + 13.2‰.

A rapid progression from exclusively arc-type to non-arc-like mafic and then contemporaneous WPG plus VAG magmatism has been documented using precise U–Pb zircon dating. Earlier arc-like plutonism indicates subduction, while asthenosphere-derived mafic magmas support slab break-off, due to subduction of a young, warm back-arc basin. Contemporaneous mafic magmas with arc and non-arc geochemical signatures may reflect tapping of asthenospheric and subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) sources and/or contamination of asthenosphere-derived magmas by SCLM or crust.

The brevity (< 5 Ma) of the mafic magmatic pulse agrees with the transient nature of magmatism associated with slab break-off. The subsequent ca. 1 to 2 m.y. period of voluminous WPG and VAG plutonism likely reflects mafic magma-driven partial melting of both SCLM and crustal sources, respectively. Continuation of VAG-like magmatism for an additional 2 to 5 m.y. may reflect lower solidus temperatures of crustal materials, enabling anatexis to continue after mantle melting ceased. East to west spatial variation of ε_Nd and (La/Yb)_CN in Silurian plutons suggests a transition from shallow melting of juvenile sources proximal to the collision zone to deeper melting of old source materials in the garnet-stability field further inboard.

Previous work has demonstrated that geochemical discriminaton of post-collisional granitoid magmatism (PCGM) is difficult in the absence of other constraints. Our example should contribute to the understanding and identification of PCGM if it can be employed as a ‘fingerprint’ for slab break-off-related PCGM within the Paleozoic geological record.     

A new chemical index of weathering for metamorphic silicate rocks in tropical regions: A study from Sri Lanka

Weathered and fresh samples of metamorphic rocks from Sri Lanka were collected from various localities and analysed for major elements by XRF method (RIGAKU, KG-X System, Japan). The content of water was determined by the ignition method.

The XRF results, obtained from these samples form the basis of a new index of chemical weathering, particularly for Sri Lanka, which is named the Silica-Titania Index, and is calculated as follows: Silica-Titania Index = {(SiO₂/TiO₂)/[(SiO₂/TiO₂) × (Al₂O₃/TiO ₂) × (SiO₂/Al₂O₃)]} × 100(molecular proportions).

The index can be used to determine the degree of weathering in chemically weathered silicate rocks of other countries in tropical regions. A triangular diagram plots the position of this index. The point load strengths of fresh rocksand weathered rocks with different degrees of weathering were correlated with the values of this new chemical index. The relative variation in strengths of fresh rocks and weathered rocks clearly indicates its suitability and usefulness for engineering geologists.     

Evolution of the early Earth: Constraints from Nd---Nd isotopic systematics

Combined ¹⁴⁷Sm---¹⁴³Nd and the now extinct [τ(1/2)₁₄₆=103×10⁶ yr] ¹⁴⁶Sm---¹⁴²Nd isotopic systematics are reported for early Archean gneisses from Greenland (Amîtsoq and Akilia associations), and Canada (Acasta gneiss). Using both field relationships and high resolution U---Pb SHRIMP ion-probe ages, it has been possible to identify the most ancient rocks in these terrains for isotopic analyses. Preliminary ¹⁴²Nd analyses of a still limited number of samples have failed to identify terrestrial ¹⁴²Nd anomalies. Effects, if present, are limited to < 10 ppm and we have thus been unable to confirm the +33±4 ppm ε₁₄₂ value claimed by Harper and Jacobsen (1992a, b) for a single sample. From the lack of ¹⁴⁶Sm---¹⁴²Nd effects we infer that large-scale fractionation events that may have occurred in the first 200 Ma of Earth history did not leave a significant nor widespread imprint on the early Archean mantle or crust. If a terrestrial magma ocean, with associated LREE fractionation, formed as a result of planetary accretion, then it had a lifetime of at most 250 m.y. before being remixed into the Earth's mantle.

The samples analysed in this study have a range of ε₁₄₃ values including highly positive values of up to +4.2. This requires that the earliest known Archean crust was differentiated from a reservoir that was strongly depleted in the LREE as compared with chondritic compositions. In the early Archean it is proposed that the depletions in LREE are a consequence of extraction of a limited fraction of the Earth's continental crust ( < 10%) from the upper 200 km of the mantle. A three reservoir model, consisting of the continental crust, depleted mantle and a more primitive mantle reservoir can be extended to account for both the present-day, as well as the evolving Nd isotopic composition of the Earth's crust and mantle. In contrast to previous models, the rate of growth of the continental crust is used as an input parameter to constrain the concomitant growth and evolution of the depleted mantle reservoir. Recycling of large volumes of bulk continental crust into the mantle is not considered to be an important process, nor is the existence of an additional major enriched component in the early Archean mantle.     

Role of apparent cohesion in the stability of Dominician allophane soil slopes

This study examines the effect of loss of apparent cohesion from rainwater infiltration upon the stability of partly saturated, allophanic soil slopes of Dominica (West Indies). The parent material of the Dominican allophanic soils are the andesitic and dacitic volcanic rocks from ten volcanic centres of mainly Pleistocene age. Although simplifying assumptions are made to assess the depth of wetting front and magnitudes of true and apparent cohesion values of the partly saturated allophanic soils, certain inferences of practical significance emerge from the study.

Matric suction contributes to the effective stress of unsaturated soils and increases the shear strength of these soils by imparting them an apparent cohesion strength component. This apparent cohesion strength component of the partly saturated Dominician allophanic soils is considered to be related to the matric suction term (u_a−u_w) by a parabolic relationship.

The partly saturated allophanic soil slopes of Dominica would invariably fail from loss of apparent cohesion upon saturation of the soil mantle by the infiltrating water front only if (a) the average slope angle (β) is greater than or equal to the drained shear strength parameter of the unsaturated soil (Φ_d) (slopes with β ≥ Φ_d are referred to as category 1 slopes in this study) and (b) the drained cohesion parameter (c_d) belonging to the partly saturated soil of the category 1 slope is mainly contributed by matric suction induced apparent cohesion (c_app) and contribution from true cohesion (c′) is absent. However, the possibility of the category 1 slopes (for the case 1 situation) failing in the saturated condition from effective stress reduction due to rise in ground water table is shown to be an unfeasible proposition. In contrast, for the case 1 situation, the partly saturated category 2 slopes (β < Φ_d) are insusceptible to failure from reduction in effective stress due to loss of matric suction but fail in the saturated condition from effective stress reduction due to rise in ground water table. If the allophanic soils were to possess a sufficient magnitude of true cohesion (c′), even the partly saturated category 1 slopes possessing slope angles (β) much in excess of their Φ_d values (β − Φ_d = 15.1°) would remain stable upon total elimination of the matric suction induced cohesion. However, partly saturated category 1 slopes possessing a true cohesion component and insusceptible to failure from reduction in effective stress upon loss of matric suction, invariably fail in the saturated condition from reduction in effective stress due to rise in ground water table.

Using the methodology developed in this study, two previously reported case histories pertaining to rain induced translational landslides in the residual soil areas of Brazil are re-examined and the results obtained in this study are found to be in agreement with the findings of the previous researchers.     

基于三轴试验的黄土K0固结特性研究

静止土压力系数(K₀)是岩土工程中计算侧向土压力的关键参数,原状和重塑黄土的K₀系数在固结过程中的发展规律明显区别于黏土或砂土。为研究围压和初始孔隙比对原状和重塑黄土的K₀系数的影响,采用加装高精度局部径向位移计(LVDT)的应力路径三轴仪开展了K₀固结试验研究,结果表明:(1)重塑黄土的K₀系数受初始孔隙比(e₀)的影响较为明显,当试样的初始孔隙比减小(从0.775变为0.503),其K₀系数的最大降幅为55%;然而原状黄土的K₀系数受有效围压(σ₃′)的影响较为明显,比如在σ₃′ < 350kPa时,K₀系数为0.77~0.85,在σ₃′>350kPa时,K₀系数为0.46~0.51;(2)在固结过程中,原状黄土试样和重塑黄土试样的K₀系数均发生陡降,具体表现为重塑黄土密样(e₀<0.6)的陡降发生在固结的起始阶段,重塑黄土松样(e₀ ≈ 0.77)的陡降发生在有效围压接近100kPa,而原状黄土试样的陡降发生在有效围压为350kPa附近;(3)在相同的有效围压和密度条件下,原状黄土的K₀系数大于重塑黄土。采用核磁共振技术(NMR)获取了重塑和原状黄土的孔隙分布,并辅以试样的超孔隙水压力、排水体积等数据进行了讨论,发现结构性是造成黄土K₀系数差异的主要原因。     

Post-collisional strongly peraluminous granites

Strongly peraluminous (SP) granites have formed as a result of post-collisional processes in various orogens. In ‘high-pressure' collisions such as the European Alps and Himalayas, post-collisional exhumation of overthickened crust (>50 km), heated by radiogenic decay of K, U and Th during syn-collisional thickening, produced small- to moderate-volume, cool (<875°C) SP granite melts with high Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ratios. In ‘high-temperature' collisions such as the Hercynides and Lachlan Fold Belt (LFB), there was less syn-collisional crustal thickening (≤50 km). Crustal anatexis was related to post-collisional lithospheric delamination and upwelling of hot asthenosphere, forming large-volume, hot (≥875°C) SP granite melts with low Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ratios. Both clay-rich, plagioclase-poor (<5%) pelitic rocks and clay-poor, plagioclase-rich (>25%) psammitic rocks have been partially melted in high-pressure and high-temperature collisional orogens, with the pelite-derived SP granites tending to have lower CaO/Na₂O ratios (<0.3) than their psammite-derived counterparts. The predominance of pelite-derived SP granites in the Himalayas and psammite-derived SP granites in the LFB suggests that mature continental platforms made up more of the accreted crust in the Himalayan collision than in the LFB.     

Lithium in the interlayer space of synthetic trioctahedral micas

This paper gives several new and strong arguments in favour of the possibility of fixation of anhydrous lithium in the interlayer space of trioctahedral potassium micas. From the chemical viewpoint Li⁺ can replace K⁺, but is located out of the alkaline cation site; it enters pseudo-octahedral cavities limited by the triangular bases of two aluminous tetrahedra of two consecutive sheets. The solubility limit of Li⁺ in the interlayer is a function of the Al^IV content of the mica. It is given by the relation (Li/Li + K)_max = 2[(Al/Si + Al)^IV]². In both micas investigated — phlogopite, KMg₃(Si₃Al)O₁₀(OH)₂, and eastonite, K(Mg_2.5Al_1.5)(Si_2.5Al_1.5)O₁₀(OH)₂ — there is a remarkable agreement between the calculated values of the solubility limits and those measured by exchange reactions with hydrothermal solutions, at 600°C, 2 kbar. In high-Al micas, the interlayer Li content can be very important, with about one-third of K⁺ replaced by Li⁺.

The fixation of Li⁺ according to this model provokes a strong flattening of the interlayer (strong decrease of the reticular distance d₀₀₅) and a slight increase of the reticular distance d₀₆₀. Infra-red (IR) absorption spectrometry shows that vacant K⁺ sites are created when Li⁺ enters the interlayer; one observes low-frequency OH stretching bands attributed to OH dipoles lying towards these empty sites. Fixation of Li⁺ does not provoke any modification of the IR spectra in the region 1200-300 cm⁻¹, indicating that Li⁺ is really out of the sheet. For both cell dimensions and IR spectra, a comparison is made with “ordinary” lepidolites, having Li⁺ in the octahedral sheet; it provides a guide for the distinction between the two species of Li-bearing micas.     

重金属污染土壤修复的Pb2+钝化产物稳定性

自然状态下土壤中重金属元素是否稳定存在是重金属污染固化修复技术中的核心问题。本文以常见重金属离子Pb²⁺为例,分析土壤中重金属离子与常见离子基团结合的稳定性。将第一性原理应用于Pb的存在形态和稳定性的分析,计算了PbCO₃、PbSO₄、PbCl₂、Pb₃（PO₄）₂、PbAl₂O₄和Pb₃Fe₂（PO₄）₄的自由能、能带和态密度。首先推断Pb²⁺和CO₃^2-、SO₄^2-、Cl^-、PO₄^3-等土壤中常见阴离子的结合稳定性,再判断加入金属阳离子Al³⁺和Fe³⁺对体系稳定性的影响。结果表明：铅化合物自由能从高到低趋势为PbCl₂、PbAl₂O₄、PbCO₃、PbSO₄、Pb₃（PO₄）₂、Pb₃Fe₂（PO₄）₄,其相应的结构稳定性顺序从大到小为Pb₃Fe₂（PO₄）₄、Pb₃（PO₄）₂、PbSO₄、PbCO₃、PbAl₂O₄、PbCl₂。通过对能带和态密度的分析,首先确定了SO₄^2-和PO₄^3-的引入能够增强含Pb体系的稳定性,进一步加入金属阳离子Fe³⁺会使体系更稳定。推测SO₄^2-、PO₄^3-为治理Pb²⁺污染合适的官能团,应选择容易释放SO₄^2-、PO₄^3-的物质作为合适的钝化剂。在实际应用中可选择磷酸二氢钠、无水硫酸钠、脱硫石膏等作为钝化剂。     

A major geodynamic change revealed by Quaternary stress patterns in the southern Apennines (Italy)

In southern Italy, analysis of fault slip data sets, in particular from Quaternary formations, provides evidence for a recent change of the stress field. During the Early Pleistocene, the horizontal maximum stress axes were ENE-WSW trending. The deformation was ENE-WSW compression near the front of the chain, and NNW-SSE extension close to the back-arc basin. Some time after the Early Pleistocene, the direction of the largest horizontal stress axes changed to northwest-southeast. Only extensional deformation (σ₂, NW-SE trending; σ₃, NE-SW trending) is observed for this phase and focal mechanisms indicate that it is still active. This NE-SW extension invaded areas previously affected by compression or NNW-SSE extension and coincides with major uplift of Pleistocene marine sediments in the chain and the foredeep up to 700 m above sea level. This change in the stress regime corresponds to the end of accretion processes that had prevailed since the Middle-Late Miocene. As a consequence of this discovery of a recent regional stress and deformational style change, the present-day normal and strike-slip faulting earthquake focal mechanisms in the Southern Apennines should not be considered representative of Tyrrhenian Sea opening and Apennines accretion.     

Experimental studies on the effects of fracture on the P and S wave velocity propagation in sedimentary rock (“Calcarenite del Salento”)

Experimental studies were carried out in laboratory in order to investigate the effects of fracture on compressional (P) wave and shear (S) wave velocity propagation and therefore the relations between seismic properties and rock mass parameters. The discontinuity index, I_d, fracture density parameter C, linear fracture parameter Γ and the rock quality designation (RQD) were used to describe the rock mass parameters. These parameters are analyzed and then related to the seismic properties. Four vertical aligned fractures were created on an intact calcarenite block, 0.6 m long, 0.4 m thick and 0.4 m width, by sawing. The measures were carried out in four different blocks of cacarenite, having the same physical properties, and in four different phases: in first block the fractures were filled with air; in the second block the fractures were filled with “terra rossa”; in third block the fractures were filled with wet “terra rossa” and in the fourth block the fractures were filled with clay. The test results were statistically analysed using the method of least squares regression and polynomial relationships with high correlation coefficient were found between the fractured rock parameters and P-wave, S-wave velocities and V_p/V_s ratio. The investigations suggest that the P-wave and S-wave velocities decrease with increasing the fracture parameters, while the V_p/V_s ratio increases with decreasing the fracture parameters.

Furthermore the results of the experimental studies were applied on the seismic refraction tomography data acquired in a great measurements campaign undertaken in the Adriatic salentina coast (south Italy) in order to monitor the coastal erosion.

The geophysical results, using the polynomial relationships between the fractured rock parameters and P-wave velocity, are in good agreement with the geomorphological and geological results.     

Petrogenesis of Cretaceous Peraluminous Granite Suites with Low Initial Sr Isotopic Ratios, Kyushu Island, Southwest Japan Arc

Cretaceous granitic rocks are widely distributed in the northern to central parts of Kyushu Island, southwest Japan arc, and are divided into two types, granite and tonalite-granodiorite. These rocks are clearly defined by their mineral assemblage, that is, the granite contains mostly muscovite and/or garnet and does not have hornblende, whereas the tonalite-granodiorite is always observed with hornblende. Many workers suggest that most of the granite has low initial Sr isotopic ratios (SrI_{90 Ma}: 0.7052-0.7059) whose values are similar to those of tonalite-granodiorite (SrI_{90 Ma}: 0.7050-0.7056).

The SiO₂ contents of the granite (67.9 to 78.0 wt.%) are higher than that of tonalite-granodiorite (54.2 to 68.2 wt.%). The granite is characterized by peraluminous compositions, while the tonalite-granodiorite shows metaluminous to peraluminous compositions. The petrogenetic relation between granite and tonalite-granodiorite is examined by a modal batch melting model, which referred to results of already published experiments. The result of the model suggests that the petrogenesis of the peraluminous granitic magma can be explained by an anatexis of metaluminous tonalite in the tonalite-granodiorite under lower to middle crustal conditions and variable fH₂O.

Rocks of tonalite to granodiorite in a subduction system generally have low initial Sr isotopic ratios (<0.705), which imply that the magma derived from a highly metaluminous origin such as mafic magma, mafic lower crust and/or subducting slab. In this study, it is regarded that the peraluminous granitic magma can be directly produced by an anatexis of metaluminous tonalite. Therefore, peraluminous granite with low initial Sr isotopic ratios may imply to a first step of recycling of the granitic layer in an active plate margin.     

Experimental concentration-time curves for the iron(II) sulphide precipitation process in aqueous solutions and their interpretation

The first precipitate formed through the reaction between aqueous Fe(II) salts and dissolved sulphide at ambient temperatures and pH < 9, appears to be a highly disordered gel approaching the composition Fe(HS)₂ on a water-free basis. After 0.4 s this precipitate loses sulphide and amorphous FeS begins to appear. The mackinawite structure begins to develop after several hours.

The rate of formation of the initial precipitate can be approximated by a pseudo first-order reaction, directly dependent on total sulphide concentration and with an apparent pseudo first-order rate constant of 48 ± 9 s⁻¹. Dissolved Fe concentration does not appear to be rate limiting.

The estimated solubility of the initial phase is variable but consistently one to two orders of magnitude greater than the measured solubilities for amorphous FeS. In natural systems this may lead to variable Fe(II) solubilities in sulphidic environments. This initial material may play a more central role in iron sulphide reaction pathways than either mackinawite or amorphous FeS.     

Einübertragungsnetz zur kluftstatistik

This paper describes the application and characteristics of a new net for crack statistics. The net, here called transmission net or “u-net” (“Übertragungsnetz”, “Ü-Netz”) is used in combination with a transmission table or “u-table” (“Übertragungstabelle”, “Ü-Tabelle”). Its purpose is to obtain a sphere of crack locations from a series of cracks, having been measured according to strike and inclination.

The “u-net” is composed of a grid subdivided into degrees or degree-grid (“Gradnetz”) and an equal-area-grid (“flächengleiches Netz”). Having replaced the direction σ of strike by its normal δ, the cracks are registered into the meshes of the degree-grid and are there counted. Then they are transmitted into the equal-area-grid according to the percent values of the u-table. From the pattern of frequency numbers (“Häufigkeitszahlen”) in the equal-area-grid the sphere of crack locations is obtained.

Particular specifications regulate the procedure for special measure values, i.e., those of the integral multiples of 5°, especially the angles of inclination τ = 0° and τ = 90° (see 1.4). With greater inaccuracies in measurements, one changes, by means of a given table (see Table V), to a degree-grid of 10°. With very small inaccuracies, on the other hand, the procedure may be simplified, the degree-grid becoming unnecessary (see 1.5). The meshes near the centre, being too long, may be avoided by an additional circle (“Zusatzkreis”—see 1.3).

The “u-net” was constructed in such a way that the spheres of crack locations report the real frequency distribution at all times, free from systematic errors. This is achieved by the method that all calculations follow the principle of area equality or area proportionality on the hemisphere (see 2.1). The procedure using the “u-net” can be adapted to differential accuracies of measuring. It is especially suitable for large numbers of cracks; it is simple in calculation and may easily be programmed for digital computers. Thus the “u-net” is advantageous for all applications in which a large number of cracks has to be dealt with. Such applications are very frequent in rock mechanics, in engineering geology for the purpose of foundation of large hydraulic buildings (dams, caverns), in petrography, tectonics and in geophysical investigations such as the determination of crack structures with a view to explaining micromagnetic occurrences, for instance. Furthermore, the “u-net” is applicable not only to crack statistics but also to other similar statistical methods, e.g., to the statistics of cristal axes or to geographic frequency analyses.